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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Nigeria</title>
<link rel="author" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reset.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reveal.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/theme/beige.css" id="theme">
<!-- For syntax highlighting -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="plugin/highlight/zenburn.css">
<!-- Local overrides -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<div class="reveal">
<!-- Any section element inside of this container is displayed as a slide -->
<div class="slides">
<section class="vcard">
<h1>Nigeria</h1>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg" class="noborder" style="width: 25%" alt="Flag of Nigeria">
<h3><a rel="author" class="url n" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<span class="honorific-prefix">Dr.</span>
<span class="given-name">Christopher</span>
<abbr class="additional-name">N.</abbr>
<span class="family-name">Lawrence</span></a></h3>
<h4 class="org">Middle Georgia State University</h4>
<h4>POLS 2301: Comparative Politics</h4>
<h5><a id="narrationToggle" onclick="toggleAutoplay(this);return false;" href="#">🔊 Disable Narration</a></h5>
</section>
<!-- XXX Actual slides go here -->
<section>
<h2>Geography</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-01.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-01.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/nigeria.svg" style="width: 50%" class="noborder" alt="Map of Nigeria.">
<p><strong>Nigeria</strong> (officially, the <em>Federal Republic of
Nigeria</em>) is the most populous country in Africa and the 7th most
populous country in the world. It is located in West Africa.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Before the Europeans</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-02.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-02.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Nigeria home of several civilizations before Europeans arrive in
the 15th century:
</p>
<ul>
<li>Southwest dominated by the <em>Yoruba</em>, who had a
centralized empire.
</li>
<li>Southeast home to the <em>Igbo</em>, network of
largely-independent villages.
</li>
<li>North: <em>Hausa</em> and <em>Fulani</em> peoples; converted to
Islam in 9th century A.D.
</li>
</ul>
<p>Today, the division between the largely Muslim north and the
Christian south remains, and reinforces the ethnic distinction
between the various Nigerian peoples.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Early European Influence</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-03.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-03.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The first European nation to exert influence was
Portugal in 1471; other European nations would follow.</p>
<p>European exploration was limited by both disease and the hostile
climate, so rather than exploiting inland resources they
capitalized on what was immediately at hand: people.</p>
<p>The practice of slavery in Africa was nothing new, but the
Europeans brought it to a much larger scale. Millions of people
from southern Nigeria and elsewhere along the African coast were
enslaved; most were shipped from Africa to the Americas to work on
plantations of cotton, sugarcane, and tobacco across the Atlantic.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>19th Century Nigeria</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-04.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-04.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/NG-Sharia.png" style="width: 40%; float: right; background:transparent" alt="States under sharia law.">
<p>A war in the early 19th century in the north led to the
establishment of the <strong>Sokoto Caliphate</strong>, a strictly Islamic
state.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, in the south Christian missionaries began to spread
inland and were later followed by European soldiers and governments
to help protect them.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>British Involvement</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-05.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-05.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Nigeria began to come under British influence in the mid-1800s as
a result of the British Navy's crackdown on slavery and the slave
trade. They replaced the trade in people with trade in commodities,
particularly oils.
</p>
<p>However, although the slave trade was ended, slavery within the
area continued. To put a stop to slavery altogether, Britain
fought battles against the Yoruba in the southwest and eventually
took over the Yoruba capital, <em>Lagos</em>, in 1861.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>British Influence Expands</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-06.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-06.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>In the following years, British traders began to work their way
inland along the Niger River and its tributaries, spreading British
influence further in West Africa.
</p>
<p>As part of the “Scramble for Africa,” Britain and
other European powers spread their claims and influence as wide as
they could, leaving a patchwork of borders that often had little to
do with Africa's ethnic or religious divisions. The land that would
become Nigeria was no different.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Inventing Nigeria</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-07.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-07.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/LordLugard.jpg" style="width: 25%; float: right; background:transparent" alt="Frederick Lugard.">
<p>Modern Nigeria was formed from two distinct territories under
British rule: a southern protectorate in the Yoruba and Igbo lands,
and the largely Muslim north.
</p>
<p>The two territories were merged in 1914 under the leadership of
Frederick Lugard, an experienced colonial administrator.
</p>
<p>However, the main reason why the merger took place was not
political—instead, it essentially was done for economic
reasons: the north was running a budget deficit, and the south had a
budget surplus.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Divide and Rule</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-08.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-08.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Most British colonies in Africa and Asia were not <em>settler
colonies</em> like Australia or Canada, and Britain never
intended to make its colonies part of Britain proper.
</p>
<p>Instead, in these colonies a small ruling class of colonial
administrators presided over millions of natives. They
used <em>divide and rule</em> techniques, playing groups of local
populations against each other so they would not work together to
overthrow the British.
</p>
<p>The British also ruled <em>indirectly</em>, using local rulers
and elites rather than imposing a European ruling elite.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Limited Self-Rule</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-09.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-09.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Divide-and-rule made it easier for former British colonies to
govern themselves when they reached independence, but also deepened
the internal divisions in those societies.
</p>
<p>The British also tended to allow more self-rule in their colonies
than most of the other European powers. Colonies typically had an
unelected council of local elites that the governor would consult;
elections would be eventually introduced to provide for limited
direct representation.
</p>
<p>In Nigeria, this pattern was followed, although southerners were
better represented than northerners in its Legislative Council.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Decolonization</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-10.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-10.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The Second World War weakened colonialism throughout the
world. Colonial powers no longer had the wealth to sustain their
sprawling empires, and the rhetorical commitment of the Western
Allies in their fight against the Axis to freedom and
anti-totalitarianism clashed with the reality of colonial rule.
</p>
<p>The peak period of decolonization in Africa was during the
1960s. It was easier in colonies like Nigeria that had few European
settlers than it was in colonies that had large numbers of settlers
like Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Nationalist Parties</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-11.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-11.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/Herbert_Macaulay.jpg" style="width: 30%; float: right; background:transparent" alt="Herbert Macaulay.">
<p>Decolonization in Nigeria was a gradual process. The first
Nigerian political party, Nigerian National Democratic Party, was
founded in 1923 by Herbert Macaulay.
</p>
<p>During World War II, Macaulay and other Nigerians formed the
National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC), a “big
tent” nationalist party. Other pro-independence parties were
founded in this era as well, some based on regional or ethnic
interests, including the Action Party.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Steps toward Independence</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-12.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-12.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/541px-Nigeria_1960-1963.png" style="width: 30%; float: right; background: white" alt="Regions of Nigeria.">
<p>In 1947, Britain established a federal structure for Nigeria, with
three regions corresponding to the major ethnic groups: Northern,
Western, and Eastern.
</p>
<p>A national House of Representatives was established in 1951, and
the federation and the regions were allowed self-government in most
areas in 1954.
</p>
<p>Western Nigeria was under the control of the Action Party, the NCNC
dominated the Eastern region, and the North was controlled by the
Northern People's Congress.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Independence Period</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-13.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-13.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Nigeria formally became independent on October 1, 1960. It briefly
had a federal parliamentary system modeled on Britain's, and
retained Queen Elizabeth II as head of state.
</p>
<p>In 1963 it abolished the monarchy and became a federal
parliamentary republic.
</p>
<p>In 1966, a pair of military coups ousted the civilian government
amid regional tensions and widespread corruption.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Nigerian Civil War</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-14.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-14.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg" style="width: 35%; float: right; background: white" alt="Republic of Biafra.">
<p>From 1967 to 1970, partially due to the coups, a rebellion in the
Eastern Region led to the attempted secession of the
Igbo-dominated <strong>Republic of Biafra</strong>. Several million people
died as a result of the fighting.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Praetorianism</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-15.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-15.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Nigeria was under military rule 1966–79 and 1983–99.
</p>
<p>In theory, military rule should bring stability, but even under
military rule there are factions <em>within</em> the military that
plot against each other.
</p>
<p>Although they often took office to stamp out corruption, military
rulers were not immune from becoming corrupt themselves. Several
were also implicated in serious human rights abuses.</p>
<p>Two former military rulers, Olusegun Obasanjo and Muhammadu
Buhari, have been elected as presidents during the current
democratic period.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Presidency</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-16.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-16.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/864px-Bola_Tinubu_portrait.jpg"
style="width: 30%; float: right; background: white"
alt="Bola Tinubu, president of Nigeria.">
<p>Since 1979, Nigeria has had a presidential system like that of
the United States.</p>
<p>Nigerian presidents serve a four-year term in office and may only
serve as president for two terms. They are elected using a
modified two-round system; the leading candidate must get at least
25% of the vote in 24 of 36 states and the Federal Capital
Territory, or a run-off is held between the top two
candidates.</p>
<p>In February 2023, APC nominee <strong>Bola Tinubu</strong>, a
former governor of Lagos State, was elected to the presidency in a
disputed multi-candidate race with 36.6% of the vote, taking
office on May 29, 2023.</p>
<!--
<p>Vice president Oluleki “Yemi” Osinbajo served as
acting president from January to March 2017, when Buhari sought
treatment for an illness in London.</p>
-->
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The House of Representatives</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-17.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-17.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/640px-Nigeriahouseofreps.jpg" style="width: 35%; float: right; background: white" alt="National Assembly building, Abuja.">
<p>The Nigerian legislature is known as the <strong>National Assembly</strong>.
</p>
<p>The Nigerian <strong>House of Representatives</strong> has 360
members, which are apportioned to the states and the Federal
Capital Territory (Abuja) on the basis of population.</p>
<p>Like in the U.S. and Britain, representatives are chosen by the
simple plurality (first-past-the-post) election system from
single-member districts in each state. Representatives serve
four-year terms.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Senate</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-18.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-18.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Nigeria's <strong>Senate</strong> includes 109 senators: 3 from
each of the 36 states, elected from districts within the states (not
statewide), and one senator from the Federal Capital Territory
(Abuja).</p>
<p>Senators also serve four-year terms.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>States of Nigeria</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-19.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-19.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp11-nigeria/Nigeria_political.png" style="width: 35%; float: right; background: white" alt="Current states of Nigeria.">
<p>Although Nigeria was originally divided into three regions at
independence, over the years it has been subdivided even
further. Since 1996, Nigeria has included 36 states.</p>
<p>In addition, the Federal Capital Territory was established in
1976 as the home of the planned capital city of Abuja, which
officially became the capital in 1991, replacing the former
capital of Lagos in the southwest.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Nigerian Federalism</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-20.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-nigeria/cp-nigeria-20.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Like in other countries, federalism allows the people in the various
states to govern themselves somewhat differently from others.</p>
<p>In Nigeria this is particularly pronounced because of the use
of <em>sharia</em> or Muslim law in northern states, which mean
those states have very different laws than those in the
Christian-dominated southern states.</p>
<p>However, since the national government controls the revenues from
oil, states depend heavily on federal funding; they don't always
have as much independence as they might appear to on paper.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Political Parties</h2>
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<p>Political parties in Nigeria are still somewhat immature.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The former ruling party, the <strong>Peoples Democratic
Party</strong> (PDP), held power since the return of democracy in
1999 until 2015. Of the two groupings, they tend to be more
economically conservative.</p></li>
<li><p>The <strong>All Progressives Congress</strong> (APC) is a
newly-created party formed to contest the 2015 election. Its
members tend to be more economically liberal.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Both parties tend to be very socially conservative by European or
American standards, reflecting the strong Christian and Islamic
influences in Nigerian society.</p>
</section>
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<section>
<h2>Divisions in Nigerian Society</h2>
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<p>The major divisions are <em>religious</em>, <em>geographic</em>,
and <em>ethnic</em>, and these categories tend to go together; most
ethnic groups are heavily associated with either Islam or
Christianity, and concentrated in particular regions.
</p>
<p>Today Muslims outnumber Christians in Nigeria as a whole,
although Christians tend to be better off and historically have
held more power in Nigerian politics.
</p>
<p>A major problem is that most of Nigeria's divisions tend to
reinforce each other, rather than being “cross-cutting
cleavages” that mean that people tend to have things in common
with other people outside their group.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Human Rights Issues</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Internal conflict, including with <em>Boko Haram</em> and
other terrorist/militant groups.</p></li>
<li><p>Government abuses under military and civilian rule.</p></li>
<li><p>Rights of gays and lesbians.</p></li>
<li><p>Rampant corruption.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Development and Oil</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Benefits of oil wealth have been squandered through
corruption and waste.</p></li>
<li><p>Political conflict over whether oil-producing regions
receive their fair share of oil revenues.</p></li>
<li><p>Improving matters would lead to benefits for Nigerian
society.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Prospects for Democracy</h2>
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<p>The 2015 elections and the mostly peaceful handover of power from
the PDP to the APC is a major milestone for Nigeria, much like the
PRI giving up power to the PAN in Mexico in 2000.</p>
<p>It remains to be seen whether the military will avoid the
impulse to intervene at the first sign of trouble, and whether the
APC can govern effectively as a single party after only just
unifying in the past few years.</p>
<p>Nonetheless Nigerians seem to want democracy to work and will
likely get a lot of outside support to help them succeed, unlike
during the immediate post-colonial period.</p>
</section>
<section class="endmatter">
<h2>Copyright and License</h2>
<ul>
<li><p>The text and narration of these slides are an original,
creative work, Copyright © 2015–24 Christopher N. Lawrence.
You may freely use, modify, and redistribute this slideshow under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0
International license. To view a copy of this license,
visit <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" rel="license">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/</a> or
send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900,
Mountain View, California, 94041, USA.</p></li>
<li><p>Other elements of these slides are either in the public domain
(either originally or due to lapse in copyright), are
U.S. government works not subject to copyright, or were licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license (or a
less restrictive license, the Creative Commons Attribution license)
by their original creator.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section class="endmatter">
<h2>Works Consulted</h2>
<p>The following sources were consulted or used in the production of
one or more of these slideshows, in addition to various primary
source materials generally cited in-place or otherwise obvious from
context throughout; previous editions of these works may have also
been used. Any errors or omissions remain the sole responsibility
of the author.</p>
<ul>
<li>Michael G. Roskin. 2015. <em>Countries and Concepts: Politics,
Geography, Culture,</em> 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson.</li>
<li>Various Wikimedia projects, including
the <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/">Wikimedia
Commons</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/">Wikipedia</a>,
and <a href="http://en.wikisource.org/">Wikisource</a>.</li>
</ul>
</section>
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