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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>China</title>
<link rel="author" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reset.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reveal.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/theme/beige.css" id="theme">
<!-- For syntax highlighting -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="plugin/highlight/zenburn.css">
<!-- Local overrides -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<div class="reveal">
<!-- Any section element inside of this container is displayed as a slide -->
<div class="slides">
<section class="vcard">
<h1>China</h1>
<img src="img/cp07-china/Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg" style="width: 25%" class="noborder" alt="Flag of the People's Republic of China">
<h3><a rel="author" class="url n" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<span class="honorific-prefix">Dr.</span>
<span class="given-name">Christopher</span>
<abbr class="additional-name">N.</abbr>
<span class="family-name">Lawrence</span></a></h3>
<h4 class="org">Middle Georgia State University</h4>
<h4>POLS 2301: Comparative Politics</h4>
<h5><a id="narrationToggle" onclick="toggleAutoplay(this);return false;" href="#">🔊 Disable Narration</a></h5>
</section>
<!-- XXX Actual slides go here -->
<section>
<h2>Geography</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-01.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-01.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp07-china/Ch-map_cropped.jpg" class="noborder" style="width: 35%; float: right" alt="Map of China.">
<p><strong>China</strong> (officially, the <strong>People's Republic of China</strong>)
is the most populous country in the world, with approximately 1.35
billion people, occupying most of East Asia.</p>
<p>Mainland China also claims the island of Taiwan as part of its
territory; however, Taiwan and some neighboring islands are
governed today by the <em>Republic of China</em> (ROC)
government.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Chinese Language</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-02.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-02.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The dominant language in China is known as <em>Mandarin
Chinese</em>; the standard dialect is based on that of the
capital city, Beijing.
</p>
<p>However, spoken Chinese has many other varieties as
well; <em>Cantonese</em> is the dominant language in southern China
and is a common language among the overseas Chinese community.
</p>
<p>Chinese is typically written using Chinese characters (also known
as <em>Han</em> characters), which combine aspects of the meaning
and sound of words. These characters are also used in Japanese
writing and, to a lesser extent, in Korea.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Romanization</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-03.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-03.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Chinese is often transcribed (<em>romanized</em>) into the
Latin alphabet using the <em>Pinyin</em> system, although Pinyin is
mostly used in China as a teaching tool or to type Chinese
words.
</p>
<p>Pinyin is based on the Mandarin spoken language, and some letters
don't correspond well to how English-speakers use them. For
example, Pinyin ‘j,’ ‘q,’ and
‘x’ are variations of the English ‘ch’ and
‘sh’ sounds.</p>
<p>Historically, there were other ways to transcribe Chinese; many
Chinese places are or were commonly known in English using
different romanization systems—examples include Peking (now
Beijing) and Canton (now Guangzhou).
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Early History</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-04.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-04.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp07-china/Qin_map.jpg" class="noborder" style="width: 30%; float: right" alt="Map of the Qin empire.">
<p>The earliest Chinese kingdoms developed along the Yellow River
around 4,000 years ago.
</p>
<p>Over the centuries, as the population grew and spread out, China
became divided into a large number of warring kingdoms.
</p>
<p>The first real unified Chinese kingdom, known as the <em>Middle
Kingdom</em>, emerged around 221 B.C. under
the <em lang="zh-Latn">Qín</em> dynasty.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Han Dynasty</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-05.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-05.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>After the <span lang="zh-Latn">Qín</span> fell in 206 B.C.,
the <em lang="zh-Latn">Hàn</em> dynasty arose and controlled most of
China for the next four centuries.
</p>
<p>The Han gradually replaced the feudalistic, aristocratic culture
of China with a more centralized, bureaucratic culture, based on the
ideas of Confucianism. The civil servants formed a social class at
the top of Han society known as the <em>Mandarins</em>, and were
selected by competitive examinations.
</p>
<p>Although the Han dynasty wasn't China's longest, its influence
remains even today; the dominant ethnic group in China are known as
the Han, and China remains a heavily bureaucratic state strongly
influenced by Confucian values.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Dynastic Cycles</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-06.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-06.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>After the Han, a series of other dynasties ruled China, in whole
or in part; they continued the practices of the Han. Even invading
rulers were assimilated into the dynastic system.
</p>
<p>Chinese people believed that the rise and fall of the various
empires reflected the <em>Mandate of Heaven</em>: wise and virtuous
rulers succeed because they had followed the will of heaven, while
despotic or weak rulers had lost their way and were no longer
worthy to rule.
</p>
<p>Unlike the European concept of <em>divine right</em>, the Chinese
did not see the Mandate of Heaven to be <em>carte blanche</em> for
rulers to govern as they pleased.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Ming Dynasty</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-07.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-07.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The Ming dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644. Under the Ming,
arguably China reached its height of power, even sending ships on
voyages of exploration around the Indian Ocean; around 1500, China
was more technologically advanced than Europe.
</p>
<p>However, the Chinese rulers grew complacent and had limited
interest in the outside world. The Chinese lost interest in
expanding their territories and their economy.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Qing and Rising European Influence</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-08.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-08.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Against this backdrop of decline, European explorers and
merchants began to seek trade and influence in China. Rather than
relating to Europeans on their own terms as they might have a few
centuries earlier, the Chinese would meet their European rivals
from an inferior position, particularly under the
last, <em>Qing</em> dynasty.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The First Opium War</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-09.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-09.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The first major humiliation of China came at the hands of the
British in the <strong>First Opium War</strong> (1839–42). Britain
had found a ready Chinese market for opium being grown in India,
even though opium smoking was illegal. When the Chinese
authorities tried to stop the British from selling opium to its
citizens by seizing several million pounds of it, the British
objected and went to war.
</p>
<p>The Qing were easily defeated, and Britain demanded the cession
of the port of Hong Kong and the opening of five other Chinese
ports to European trade, along with special privileges for
European citizens in China.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Second Opium War</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-10.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-10.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The <strong>Second Opium War</strong> (1856–60) went even worse for
China. Several imperial palaces were destroyed, additional ports
were opened to European trade and Hong Kong was expanded, and the
Chinese were forced to recognize Britain, France, and Russia as
diplomatic equals by hosting embassies from those states.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Imperial Collapse</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-11.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-11.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The defeats at the hands of the European powers led to internal
rebellions, further weakening the Qing dynasty. Japan took
advantage of China's weakness, seizing Taiwan in 1894 and gaining
influence over Korea at the expense of China.
</p>
<p>Within China, foreigners—particularly Christian
missionaries—became a target for popular anger. In 1900,
participants in the <strong>Boxer Rebellion</strong> attacked both
missionaries and Chinese converts, with support from some elements
of the Chinese government. The European powers, along with the
United States, intervened to put down the rebellion and extract
reparations.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Republic</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-12.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-12.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>In 1911, the Qing dynasty was overthrown by Sun Yat-sen (Pinyin:
<em lang="zh-Latn">Sūn Yìxiān</em>), who was a Western-trained
doctor, aided by other revolutionaries among the military and
government.
</p>
<p>They established the <strong>Republic of China</strong> in the empire's
place, and Sun founded the Chinese Nationalist Party or Kuomintang
(KMT; Pinyin: <em lang="zh-Latn">Guómíndǎng</em>).
</p>
<p>However, China descended into chaos in 1916 as various warlords
fought the central government for control of the country. For the
next decade, the KMT fought to reunify China.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Communists</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-13.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-13.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Early on, the KMT had support from the Soviet communists; the KMT
was organized along Leninist lines (<em>democratic centralism</em>),
and the KMT were taught propaganda techniques by Bolshevik
advisers. The KMT included both left-wing and right-wing elements.
</p>
<p>However, there was also an indigenous Communist Party of China
(CCP), founded in 1921. The CCP and KMT cooperated during the
conflict with the warlords, until 1927 when the KMT—led
after the death of Sun Yat-sen by right-winger Chiang
Kai-shek—expelled communists from his party.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Long March</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-14.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-14.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Although the KMT gained control of most of the country by 1928,
they were unable to eradicate the CCP, who went on the “Long
March” in 1934 into the northwest of China to escape being
encircled and captured by the KMT army. The Long March
left <span lang="zh-Latn">Máo Zédōng</span> as the undisputed leader
of the Communists.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>War with Japan</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-15.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-15.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp07-china/Manchukuo_map_1939.svg" alt="Japanese conquests in East Asia during World War II." style="float: right; width: 30%">
<p>The invasion of China by Japan in 1937 forced the Nationalists
and the Communists to cooperate again. Japan had already invaded and
taken over Manchuria (<em>Manchukuo</em>) in 1931, but the KMT had not
put up much resistance as they saw the Communists as a greater
threat than Japan.</p>
<p>For the next eight years, the Communists and Nationalists fought
on the same side against the Japanese, although they did not really
work together; the KMT tended to apply conventional warfare while
the CCP's forces favored guerrilla warfare. At times, they even
fought each other for control of the inland areas of “free
China.”</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Communist Victory</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-16.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-16.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>After the Japanese were defeated in 1945, the civil war soon
resumed. Although the Nationalists had a better-organized military
and superior equipment, the Communists had more popular support and
were able to seize key military assets they could use in the war.</p>
<p>By the end of 1949, the KMT was effectively defeated on the
mainland, and the Nationalist leadership “temporarily”
relocated to Taiwan to continue the fight from there.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, on October 1, 1949, the Communists declared the
establishment of the <em>People's Republic of China</em>, with its
capital in Beijing.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Early Communist Years</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-17.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-17.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp07-china/363px-Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg" style="float: right; width: 20%" alt="Official portrait of Mao Zedong.">
<p>Like in the Soviet Union, Mao had to decide how to adapt
socialism to China. China in 1949 had a huge population outside
the cities reliant on subsistence agriculture and barely any heavy
industry.
</p>
<p>In the first decade, <em>land reform</em> was the major emphasis of
the regime. China's involvement in the Korean War (1950–53)
in support of the North Korean regime of <span lang="ko-Latn">Kim
Il-sung</span> proved costly in manpower and resources, slowing
Mao's program of nationalization.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Great Leap Forward</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-18.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-18.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp07-china/Backyard_furnace4.jpg" style="float: right; width: 20%" alt="Backyard furnaces in rural China during the Great Leap Forward.">
<p>From 1958 to 1961, Mao led the country on a radical restructuring
known as the <strong>Great Leap Forward</strong>, because he felt the
development of socialism was progressing too slowly and Soviet
support was declining.
</p>
<p>The Great Leap Forward included the forced collectivization of
agriculture along with the rejection of old religious and cultural
practices. Critics within and outside the Party were
purged in the <em>Anti-Rightist Campaign</em>.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Effects of the Great Leap Forward</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-19.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-china/cp-china-19.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The effects of the Great Leap Forward were as disastrous as Stalin's
similar policies in the USSR had been. Between 30–45 million
peasants died from starvation, in part due to a bizarre fixation
on steel production in “backyard furnaces” at
the expense of farming.
</p>
<p>Mao was somewhat discredited by the failure of the Great Leap
Forward, which allowed more moderate figures like <strong>Deng
Xiaoping</strong> to advance into leadership positions.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Cultural Revolution</h2>
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<p>Within a few years, Mao tried to revitalize Maoist thought in
the <strong>Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution</strong> (1966–76).
</p>
<p>During the Cultural Revolution, gangs of youth were organized
into the <em>Red Guard</em>, who were used to persecute
“revisionists” and anyone else who represented the
Four Olds: “old ideas, culture, customs, and habits”
of the bourgeoisie.
</p>
<p>The targets of the Red Guards were wide-ranging: academics,
doctors, farmers, and factory supervisors. Even party leaders were
not immune; Deng was among those purged from the party leadership
(twice).</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Deng Xiaoping</h2>
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<p>The Cultural Revolution ended with Mao's death and the ouster of
the <em>Gang of Four</em> in 1976. The new party leader, Hua
Guofeng, restored Deng to his senior party positions.</p>
<p>Deng successfully outmaneuvered Hua to gain control of the party
and the country. He embarked on a program of capitalist economic
reform—euphemistically called “socialism with Chinese
characteristics”—and improving ties with other countries,
particularly the United States.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Political Reform: A Bridge Too Far</h2>
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<p>Deng also was responsible for suppressing the Tiananmen Square
protests of 1989. Although the CCP is willing to promote greater
economic openness, substantial political reform remains taboo.</p>
<p>China remains a one-party state, with the Communist Party
guaranteed a position of leadership in the country by the 1982
Constitution. Like in the USSR, the party and state are deeply
intertwined.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>A One-Party State</h2>
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<p>Nominally, a few other parties are allowed to compete for a
limited number of seats in the National People's Congress and
other elected bodies, but—as was the case in East Germany and
other Eastern European countries under communist rule during the
Cold War era—these parties are essentially subservient to the CCP
and follow the party line.</p>
<p>Within the Communist Party, although there are factions, under
the ideal of <em>democratic centralism</em> they generally do not
make these divisions obvious in public.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Paramount Leader</h2>
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<p>Like in the USSR, the formal titles of political figures do not
always indicate the power held by Chinese leaders under the CCP
system. In general, since Deng, the current supreme or paramount
leader has held the posts of <strong>General Secretary of the Communist
Party of China</strong>, <strong>President of the PRC</strong>, and <strong>Chairman of
the Central Military Commission</strong>.
</p>
<p>The current leader of China is <strong lang="zh-Latn">Xi
Jinping</strong>, who has headed the CCP since November 2012. In
2018, the National People's Congress voted to remove the two
five-year term limit on service as President of the PRC,
indicating <span lang="zh-Latn">Xi</span> plans to remain in charge
beyond the approximate ten-year limit his two predecessors followed.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>National People's Congress</h2>
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<p>China's national legislature, the <strong>National People's
Congress</strong>, meets every year for around two weeks in Beijing. With
nearly 3,000 members, it is the world's biggest
legislature. Approximately 2/3 of the seats are reserved for the
CCP, with the remainder of seats held by representatives of the
“United Front” parties that are under the thumb of the
CCP.</p>
<p>The NPC's members are indirectly elected to five-year terms by
the people's congresses of the various provinces, regions,
directly-ruled cities, and special administrative regions. Members
also represent the People's Liberation Army and, nominally, Taiwan
and other territories under ROC control.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Elections in China</h2>
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<p>The regional and provincial congresses, in turn, are indirectly
elected. Although at the very lowest level there are direct public
elections, only a few independent candidates are allowed to
compete. Registering new political parties, although technically
legal, is subject to punishment by state authorities.</p>
<p>In the relatively free special administrative regions of Hong
Kong and Macau, which have partially-elected legislative bodies of
their own, only CCP loyalists are allowed to choose their
delegates to the National People's Congress.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>One Country, Two Systems</h2>
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<p>The two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), Hong Kong and
Macau, are part of the PRC, but have substantial internal autonomy
and are governed under the laws they had before being returned to
Chinese rule (by Britain and Portugal) in the late 1990s. They are
guaranteed this status for at least 50 years post-handover.</p>
<p>Although the residents of both territories enjoy more political
freedom than mainland Chinese, the PRC resists allowing fully
democratic elections and works with local, pro-Beijing politicians
at times to try to suppress dissent. The mainland government used
the new “National Security Law” to impose a crackdown on the
pro-democracy movement in Hong Kong starting in 2020.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Taiwan</h2>
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<img src="img/cp07-china/Taiwan-CIA_WFB_Map.png" style="float: right; width: 20%" alt="Taiwan">
<p>The PRC also claims sovereignty over Taiwan, but in practice
Taiwan is governed by the remnants of the <em>Republic of
China</em> government.</p>
<p>The Nationalists (KMT) operated a PRI-like dominant-party
dictatorship on Taiwan until the 1980s.</p>
<p>Subsequent political reforms have made Taiwan a competitive
multi-party democracy with a semi-presidential system of
government modeled on France's system. The KMT now competes as a
center-right party against the center-left Democratic Progressive
Party.</p>
</section>
<section class="endmatter">
<h2>Copyright and License</h2>
<ul>
<li><p>The text and narration of these slides are an original,
creative work, Copyright © 2015–24 Christopher N. Lawrence.
You may freely use, modify, and redistribute this slideshow under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0
International license. To view a copy of this license,
visit <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" rel="license">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/</a> or
send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900,
Mountain View, California, 94041, USA.</p></li>
<li><p>Other elements of these slides are either in the public domain
(either originally or due to lapse in copyright), are
U.S. government works not subject to copyright, or were licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license (or a
less restrictive license, the Creative Commons Attribution license)
by their original creator.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section class="endmatter">
<h2>Works Consulted</h2>
<p>The following sources were consulted or used in the production of
one or more of these slideshows, in addition to various primary
source materials generally cited in-place or otherwise obvious from
context throughout; previous editions of these works may have also
been used. Any errors or omissions remain the sole responsibility
of the author.</p>
<ul>
<li>Michael G. Roskin. 2015. <em>Countries and Concepts: Politics,
Geography, Culture,</em> 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson.</li>
<li>Various Wikimedia projects, including
the <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/">Wikimedia
Commons</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/">Wikipedia</a>,
and <a href="http://en.wikisource.org/">Wikisource</a>.</li>
</ul>
</section>
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