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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Russia</title>
<link rel="author" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reset.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reveal.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/theme/beige.css" id="theme">
<!-- For syntax highlighting -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="plugin/highlight/zenburn.css">
<!-- Local overrides -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<div class="reveal">
<!-- Any section element inside of this container is displayed as a slide -->
<div class="slides">
<section class="vcard">
<h1>Russia</h1>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/Flag_of_Russia.svg" class="noborder" style="width: 25%" alt="Flag of Russia">
<h3><a rel="author" class="url n" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<span class="honorific-prefix">Dr.</span>
<span class="given-name">Christopher</span>
<abbr class="additional-name">N.</abbr>
<span class="family-name">Lawrence</span></a></h3>
<h4 class="org">Middle Georgia State University</h4>
<h4>POLS 2301: Comparative Politics</h4>
<h5><a id="narrationToggle" onclick="toggleAutoplay(this);return false;" href="#">🔊 Disable Narration</a></h5>
</section>
<!-- XXX Actual slides go here -->
<section>
<h2>Geography</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-01.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-01.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/Rs-map.png" style="width: 50%; float: right" alt="Map of Modern Russia">
<p>Russia, officially known as the <strong>Russian
Federation</strong> (<em lang="ru">Российская Федерация</em>
or <em lang="ru-Latn">Rossiyskaya Federatsiya</em>), spans the
northern part of Asia and the easternmost portion of Europe. It is
the largest country by area in the world, spanning 11 time
zones.</p>
<p>However, most of Russia is thinly populated; most Russians live
in the western and southwestern portions of the country.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Language and Writing</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-02.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-02.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/Soviet_passport.jpg" style="width: 25%;
float: right"
alt="Soviet passport, showing Latin and Cyrillic text.">
<p>Like several other eastern European languages, Russian is written
in an alphabet based on Greek known as <em>Cyrillic</em>, after
Saint Cyril, who was responsible for converting many of the Slavs to
Christianity.</p>
<p>Some letters are more-or-less the same as in the Latin alphabet
used in English, while some are different; some Cyrillic letters
have the same shapes as Latin letters but different meanings.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Culture and Religion</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-03.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-03.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Russia and much of eastern Europe historically was under the
influence of the <em>Orthodox Church</em>, which broke with the
Roman Catholic Church in 1054 AD.</p>
<p>Under communism, society was heavily secularized; religious
sentiment has recovered somewhat since the 1980s.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Early History</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-04.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-04.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/725px-001_Kievan_Rus_Kyivan_Rus_Ukraine_map_1220_1240.jpg" style="width: 35%; float: right" alt="Map of the Kievan Rus' ca. 1220">
<ul>
<li><p>7th–9th centuries CE: Slavic tribes formed the <em>Kievan
Rus'</em> in what is now western Russia, Belarus, and
Ukraine.</p></li>
<li><p>Capital first at Novogorod, moved to Kyiv (now in Ukraine)
in 9th century.</p></li>
<li><p>Relatively stable until Mongol invasions and internal
strife in the 13th century.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Emergence of Moscow</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-05.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-05.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/474px-1000_Ivan_III.jpg" style="width: 25%; float: right" alt="Ivan III of Russia">
<ul>
<li><p>Small states vied for influence under Mongol (Tatar)
influence.</p></li>
<li><p><em>Muscovy</em> (the principality of Moscow) gained
influence and power as trusted agents of the Tatars.</p></li>
<li><p>Weakening of the Tatars led to Muscovy uniting neighboring states.</p></li>
<li><p>Most powerful early ruler was <strong>Ivan III</strong>: tripled the
size of Muscovy; imposed absolute rule on his subjects.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Tsardom and the Romanovs</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-06.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-06.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img alt="Ivan the Terrible" style="float: right; width: 25%" src="img/cp06-russia/IoannIV_reconstruction_by_Gerasimov02.jpg">
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Ivan IV</strong> (<em>Ivan the Terrible</em>) first
Russian ruler to be called <em>tsar</em> (emperor).</p></li>
<li><p>Effective statesman and reformer, but ruthlessly dominated
the Russian nobility.</p></li>
<li><p>After Ivan, Russia briefly ruled by the
neighboring <em>Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</em>. Eventually
the foreign rulers were driven out, and Russian self-rule restored
in 1613.</p></li>
<li><p>New tsars formed the Romanov dynasty, who would continue to
rule until 1917.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Absolutism and Expansion</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-07.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-07.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<ul>
<li>Absolutism expanded in Russia as it was in decline elsewhere
in Europe:
<ul>
<li>Romanovs became increasingly autocratic over time.</li>
<li>Serfdom expanded.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<strong>Peter the Great</strong> (1682–1725)
<ul>
<li>Inspired by Louis XIV of France.
</li>
<li>Expanded Russian territory, conquering neighboring
territories and settling Siberia; Russia became world's
biggest country.</li>
<li>Sought to “Europeanize” Russia, founding new capital
(Saint Petersburg) on the Baltic Sea.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>19th Century Reform: Too Little, Too Late</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-08.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-08.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Napoleon's armies—although ultimately defeated, thanks largely to
the harsh Russian winter—made Russians aware just how far behind
western Europe their country was. Russians were divided between
those who wanted to emulate the West more closely and those who
wanted to stand up for a unique, Slavic culture.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the tsars rarely paid much heed to the need for
political and economic reform. Although the serfs were nominally
freed under Alexander II in 1861, peasant life was still brutal and
other political reforms were lacking.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Anarchists and Communists</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-09.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-09.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The lack of meaningful political reform led to radical movements
emerging in Russia. Some intellectuals rejected the ideas of the
state and traditional government entirely. Others favored
a <strong>Marxist</strong> revolution to bring about a socialist
state, but disagreed as to how they might make it come about.</p>
<p>The secret police within Russia were very effective in rooting
out revolutionary groups across the spectrum, so many of these
groups' leaders were forced into exile. One of these groups, the
Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, would become critical in the
decades to come.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Mensheviks and Bolsheviks</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-10.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-10.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Two factions within the Russian SDLP:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Gradualists (<em lang="ru-Latn">Mensheviks</em>): Russia not
ready for socialism; needed to become capitalist first while
improving conditions for peasants and workers.</p></li>
<li><p>Militants (<em lang="ru-Latn">Bolsheviks</em>): Russia
needed a direct transition from feudalism to
socialism. Fused Marx's economic ideas with Lenin's
political approach of <em>democratic
centralism</em>.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Russo-Japanese War</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-11.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-11.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The expanding Russian empire in the east came into conflict with
Japanese expansion into modern Korea and northern China
(Manchuria). The Russians thought they could easily defeat Japan, but
instead suffered a humiliating defeat.</p>
<p>Russians rose up in protest against the tsar, Nicholas II, who was
forced to offer reforms, including elections to a national parliament,
the <strong lang="ru-Latn">Duma</strong>.</p>
<p>While this was a baby step toward mass democracy, Nicholas kept
real power under his control by making ministers accountable to him,
not the elected <span lang="ru-Latn">Duma</span>. Few Russians were
satisfied.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The February Revolution</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-12.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-12.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/322px-Alexander_Kerensky_LOC_24416.jpg" style="float: right; width: 25%" alt="Alexander Kerensky">
<p>In World War I, Russia was one of the allies that were arrayed
against the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary). However, the
war went very badly for Russia, whose armies again were proven
inferior to those of their rivals.</p>
<p>In March 1917 (late February under the old Russian calendar),
moderate politicians forced Nicholas II from power and established
the <strong>Provisional Government</strong> under Alexander Kerensky,
a social democrat. Kerensky, however, vowed to continue the war, an
unpopular stance among the Russian people.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The October Revolution</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-13.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-13.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The Germans hoped to get Russia out of the war by provoking
continued unrest there; they gave Lenin and several other
communists free passage through their territory to go to Russia
and foment revolution.</p>
<p>The Provisional Government had control of the army, but the
Bolsheviks organized the <em lang="ru-Latn">soviets</em>—councils of
workers, peasants, and soldiers—to undermine state power.</p>
<p>In late October on the old Russian calendar (early November),
Lenin and the St. Petersburg <em lang="ru-Latn">soviet</em> rose up
and ousted the Provisional Government. They quickly sued for peace
with Germany in the <em>Treaty of Brest-Litvosk</em> on terms very
favorable to the Germans.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Civil War and War Communism</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-14.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-14.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/324px-Lenin_CL.jpg" style="float: right; width: 17.5%" alt="Vladimir Lenin">
<p>Russian opponents of the Bolsheviks, supported by World War I
allies who felt betrayed by Russia's withdrawal from the conflict
with Germany, waged a civil war to stop the Bolsheviks from
gaining control of the Russian Empire. The anti-communist
“Whites” were eventually defeated by the “Reds,” but at a heavy
cost.</p>
<p>At the same time the civil war raged, Lenin tried to implement a
socialist economic system by nationalizing the entire
economy. Ironically, only American charity saved the Russian
people under <strong>war communism</strong> from mass starvation as the
forced collectivization of agriculture failed miserably.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The New Economic Policy</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-15.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-russia/cp-russia-15.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp06-russia/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg" style="float: right; width: 20%" class="noborder" alt="Flag of the Soviet Union">
<ul>
<li><p>Former Russian Empire reconstituted as the <strong>Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics</strong> (USSR;
Cyrillic: <em lang="ru">СССР</em>) or Soviet Union for
short; non-Russian territories taken over
as <em>republics</em> within the USSR.</p></li>
<li><p>USSR theoretically a federation of states; in practice,
ethnic Russians called the shots.</p></li>
<li><p>Failure of war communism led Lenin to adopt the <em>New
Economic Policy</em>, limiting state control to heavy
industry and returning most farming, light industry, and
commerce to private ownership.</p></li>
<li><p>Death of Lenin in 1924 leaves a power vacuum.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Joseph Stalin (1926–53)</h2>
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<p>When Joseph Stalin consolidated power in 1926, he began a series
of <em>purges</em> designed to eliminate the other early Bolshevik
leaders along with other rivals. Estimates suggest over a million
people were killed; millions more were imprisoned, exiled, or
removed from government posts.</p>
<p>Stalin also initiated a program of <em>dekulakization</em> to bring
agriculture under state control by killing hundreds of thousands of
peasant farmers and their families. These policies caused a massive
famine, leading to between 5 and 8 million deaths.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Stalin in World War II</h2>
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<p>Stalin and Hitler, despite being ideological opponents, secretly
cooperated early in the war to divide Poland. On Stalin's orders,
thousands of Poles were massacred by the Soviets, including both
civilians and prisoners of war.</p>
<p>When Hitler turned on Stalin and invaded, the Soviet military was
taken by complete surprise; it was also ill-equipped and weak due to
Stalin's purges. The assault went well initially for the Germans,
but the failure to capture Moscow and Leningrad quickly led to the
Soviets being able to regroup in 1942 and turn the tide.</p>
<p>In total, 27 million Soviet citizens died during the war; over
two-thirds were civilians.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Stalin After World War II</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Most countries that had been liberated from the Germans by
the USSR brought under communist rule 1945–49; most were
part of the <strong>Warsaw Pact</strong> until 1989.</p></li>
<li><p>Stalin also promoted communism abroad, bolstered Chinese
communists; helped establish North Korea and North Vietnam.</p></li>
<li><p>Inside USSR, fostered a cult of personality and emphasized
Russian nationalism.</p></li>
<li><p>Died under suspicious circumstances in 1953.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Nikita Khrushchev (1954–64)</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Internal party struggle eventually led to emergence of
Nikita Khrushchev as new party leader.</p></li>
<li><p>Khrushchev pushed <em>de-Stalinization</em>, ending cult of
personality; reduced repression within the USSR.</p></li>
<li><p>However, more confrontational abroad: suppressed uprising
in Hungary; increased tensions with the U.S. leading to the
Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.</p></li>
<li><p>Deposed by the party leadership in 1964.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Leonid Brezhnev (1964–82)</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Soviets lost the “space race,” tensions
emerged with China, and economic issues and corruption became
increasingly problematic.</p></li>
<li><p>In 1979, launched an invasion of Afghanistan to support the
communist government in Kabul; the Russians were quickly bogged
down in conflict with <em lang="ar-Latn">mujahideen</em> guerrillas
supported by the United States.</p></li>
<li><p>Brezhnev died in office in 1982, although real power had
passed to several others in 1981 due to his ill health.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Andropov and Chernenko</h2>
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<p>Brezhnev was succeeded by two short-lived rulers, <strong>Yuri
Andropov</strong> (1982–84) and <strong>Konstantin Chernenko</strong>
(1984–85).</p>
<p>Andropov realized the depth of the problems facing the Soviet
Union and began a program of reform and continued arms limitation
talks with the West, but became seriously ill just months into his
leadership.</p>
<p>Chernenko was already terminally ill when he became general
secretary.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Mikhail Gorbachev (1985–91)</h2>
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<p>The last Soviet leader was Mikhail Gorbachev. Initially expected to
continue Andropov's program of gradual reform, he eventually was
forced by economic circumstances to introduce much more drastic
changes (<em>glasnost</em> and <em>perestroika</em>).</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Institutions Under Communism</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Theory: the CPSU and the state were separate
institutions.</p></li>
<li><p>Practice: CPSU dominated the state apparatus.</p></li>
<li><p>General Secretary (<strong lang="ru-Latn">gensek</strong>) usually
the ultimate authority, subject to being overruled by
the <strong lang="ru-Latn">Politburo</strong>.</p></li>
<li><p>State power vested in <strong>Supreme Soviet</strong> (legislature)
and its executive committee, the <em>Presidium</em>.</p></li>
<li><p>Presidium members and key ministers were typically
Politburo members. Chairman of the Presidium was technically
the head of state.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Soviet Bureaucracy</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Socialist system required massive bureaucracy to maintain
and control the economy.</p></li>
<li><p>Positions in the bureaucracy controlled by CPSU
using <strong lang="ru-Latn">nomenklatura</strong> system; only people
on the approved list could be appointed to important jobs.</p></li>
<li><p><strong lang="ru-Latn">Gosplan</strong>, the State Planning
Committee, implemented the Five-Year Plans developed by the
CPSU.</p></li>
<li><p>Without price signals of supply and demand, Gosplan unable
to coordinate production effectively, particularly of consumer
goods.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Chekists: The <span lang="ru-Latn">KGB</span>
</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>State security police were used to maintain the party and
state's control.</p></li>
<li><p>Went by various names; in 1950s became the Committee on State
Security, or the <strong lang="ru-Latn">KGB</strong>.</p></li>
<li><p>Monitored private lives of citizens; punished and harassed
dissidents. Most threatening dissidents might be sent
to <em>gulags</em>, moved to “closed cities,” or
institutionalized.</p></li>
<li><p>Successor agency in Russia known as the Federal Security
Bureau (FSB).</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Glasnost and Perestroika</h2>
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<p>By the 1980s, it was clear that the Eastern Bloc was unable to
keep up with the West. The USSR was beset by widespread corruption
and inefficiency, compounded by worsening public services and
alcoholism.</p>
<p>Gorbachev concluded that the Soviet state needed fundamental
restructuring (<em lang="ru-Latn">perestroika</em>) and greater
openness to criticism (<em lang="ru-Latn">glasnost</em>). Private
sector businesses were allowed again, and greater criticism of
government and party policies was tolerated.</p>
<p>However, even at the end, Gorbachev wanted to preserve
Marxism-Leninism and the USSR, at least in some form.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Unintended Consequences</h2>
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<p>The biggest unintended consequence
of <em lang="ru-Latn">glasnost</em> was the return of nationalism,
not just in the USSR's republics but also in the Eastern
Bloc. People under communist rule also became more aware of the
better lifestyle most Westerners enjoyed and the full extent of
Stalin's crimes.</p>
<p>Following Gorbachev's decision to allow the Warsaw Pact countries
to democratize without Soviet intervention, nationalists in the Baltic
and Caucasus republics agitated for independence from the
Russian-dominated USSR.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The August Coup</h2>
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<p>When the CPSU's monopoly on power was removed by Gorbachev,
nationalist parties won elections in several Soviet republics and
moved toward independence. Meanwhile, reformist former Politburo
member Boris Yeltsin became the leader of the Russian Supreme
Soviet, increasing tension between the Russian and USSR
governments.
</p>
<p>The final death knell was
the <a href="http://ezproxy.mga.edu/login?url=http://digital.films.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?aid=27469&xtid=8966">attempted <em>coup</em></a>
against Gorbachev in August 1991. Although the coup failed and
Gorbachev was reinstated as president, real power was now in the
hands of Yeltsin, who had led to opposition to the coup in
Moscow. The CPSU was dissolved and banned, and most of the republics
declared independence.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Denouement</h2>
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<p>In December, the four republics that had not declared
independence did so, effectively abolishing the USSR, and formed
the <em>Commonwealth of Independent States</em> in its place.
</p>
<p>With no republics left, Gorbachev bowed to the inevitable. With
his resignation as president, the USSR was officially dissolved on
December 25, 1991.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Crisis of 1993</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>“Shock therapy”
economics led to sharp decline in Yeltsin's approval, tensions with
the <em>Congress of People's Deputies</em> (parliament).</p></li>
<li><p>Tensions boiled over in September 1993: Yeltsin tried to
dissolve the parliament; CPD tried to impeach Yelstin for
violating the constitution by dissolving parliament.</p></li>
<li><p>Interior ministry forces loyal to Yeltsin eventually stormed the
parliament building (“White House”) after street
fighting between pro-Yeltsin and pro-CPD forces.
</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>A New Constitution</h2>
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<p>In the aftermath, a new Constitution was adopted, modeled on that
of France, strengthening presidential power at the expense of the
new <em>Federal Assembly</em>.
</p>
<p>However, Yeltsin also got along poorly with the new legislature,
and he was unable to continue many of his reforms.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Vladimir Putin Takes Power</h2>
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<p>Toward the end of his presidency, Yelstin appointed former KGB
operative Vladimir Putin as his prime minister and handed increasing
power over to him as his health continued to deteriorate.</p>
<p>When Yeltsin resigned from office on December 31, 1999, Putin
took over as <em>acting president</em> until elections were held in
2000.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Formal Institutions Today</h2>
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<p>Russia has a <em>semipresidential system</em> similar to that of
France: the president chooses a prime minister who is accountable
to parliament.</p>
<p>Unlike in France, parliament's control over the cabinet is more
limited. A censure (no confidence) vote only requires the
president to act if a confidence motion is passed twice within
three months; even then, the president can normally call for new
elections to the <em lang="ru-Latn">Duma</em> rather than dismissing
the cabinet.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The President</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Current president: Vladimir Putin, associated with
the <em>United Russia</em> party.</p></li>
<li><p>Putin is in his fifth term as president. Served two terms
from 2000–08; elected to third term in 2012 (after
serving as prime minister from 2008–12), fourth term
in 2018, and fifth in 2024.</p></li>
<li><p>If no candidate receives an absolute majority in the
first ballot, a runoff between the top two candidates takes place
(not common).</p></li>
<li><p>Until 2012, four-year term. Since 2012, term now six
years. Limited to two <em>consecutive</em> terms, but limit
was reset for former presidents by 2020 constitutional
amendments designed to allow Putin to remain in
power.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Prime Minister and Cabinet</h2>
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next to each other.">
<p>The prime minister and cabinet, like in France, is appointed by
the president.</p>
<p>The current prime minister is <strong lang="ru-Latn">Mikhail
Mishustin</strong>. He previously served as director of Russia's
Federal Tax Service.</p>
<p>In the event of the president's death or resignation from
office, the prime minister becomes <em>acting president</em> until
new elections are held within 90 days.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The State Duma</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Russia's bicameral parliament is officially known as
the <strong>Federal Assembly</strong>.</p></li>
<li><p>The lower house is the 450-member <strong>State
Duma</strong>.</p></li>
<li>
<p>Duma elected using a <em>parallel voting system</em> since 2016:</p>
<ul>
<li>225 seats elected via proportional representation
nation-wide from party lists (5% threshold).</li>
<li>225 seats elected from single-member districts by
plurality (FPTP).</li>
<li>Considered a <em>semiproportional</em>
or <em>mixed-member majoritarian</em> system.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Council of the Federation</h2>
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<ul>
<li>Upper house is the 170-member <strong>Federation Council</strong> (<em lang="ru-Latn">Soviet Federatsii</em>).
</li>
<li>Two members from each of Russia's 85 <em>federal subjects</em>:
<ul>
<li>One chosen by the legislature.</li>
<li>One chosen by the governor.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The president can appoint up to 17 additional members.
</li>
<li>In addition to considering legislation proposed by the Duma,
the Council also approves presidential decrees of
states-of-emergency and martial law and approves certain
presidential nominations.
</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Judiciary</h2>
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<p>Like in Germany and the United States, the Russian constitution
establishes a Constitutional Court that can review the legality of
government actions and laws.</p>
<p>However, the courts in Russia (including the Constitutional
Court) are widely believed to lack genuine independence from
political influence, particularly from the president. Putin's
political opponents are frequently convicted of criminal activities,
while those suspected of crimes against opposition figures and
independent journalists are rarely brought to justice.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Political Parties in Russia</h2>
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<p>Four biggest parties in the State Duma:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>United Russia</strong> is the ruling party, organized by
Putin's supporters (although Putin is nominally an
independent).</p></li>
<li><p>Unlike in most post-Communist countries, the <strong>Communist
Party</strong> of Russia is still quite popular and has not
“rebranded.”</p></li>
<li><p><strong>LDPR</strong> (formerly the <em>Liberal Democratic
Party of Russia</em>) is a nationalist party; it is not
particularly liberal or democratic.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>A Just Russia</strong> historically supported Putin
and Medvedev too; now presents itself as a left-wing
alternative.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Political Subdivisions</h2>
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<p>85 <strong>federal subjects</strong> of Russia, directly under
the federal government:</p>
<ul>
<li>22 <strong>republics</strong> (typically for minorities)</li>
<li>46 <em>oblasts</em>
</li>
<li>9 <em>krais</em>
</li>
<li>4 autonomous <em>okrugs</em>
</li>
<li>3 <strong>federal cities</strong>: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Sevastapol