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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Germany</title>
<link rel="author" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reset.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reveal.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/theme/beige.css" id="theme">
<!-- For syntax highlighting -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="plugin/highlight/zenburn.css">
<!-- Local overrides -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<div class="reveal">
<!-- Any section element inside of this container is displayed as a slide -->
<div class="slides">
<section class="vcard">
<h1>Germany</h1>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/Flag_of_Germany.svg" alt="Flag of Germany" class="noborder" style="width: 25%">
<h3><a rel="author" class="url n" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<span class="honorific-prefix">Dr.</span>
<span class="given-name">Christopher</span>
<abbr class="additional-name">N.</abbr>
<span class="family-name">Lawrence</span></a></h3>
<h4 class="org">Middle Georgia State University</h4>
<h4>POLS 2301: Comparative Politics</h4>
<h5><a id="narrationToggle" onclick="toggleAutoplay(this);return false;" href="#">🔊 Disable Narration</a></h5>
</section>
<!-- XXX Actual slides go here -->
<section>
<h2>Geography</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-01.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-01.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/512px-BRD.png" alt="Map of Germany today" style="float: right; width: 30%">
<p>The Federal Republic of Germany (German: <em lang="de">Bundesrepublik
Deutschland</em>) is the most populous country that is wholly in
Europe, occupying the north central portion of the continent.
</p>
<p>Today it includes 16 states (German: <em lang="de">Länder</em>), three of
which are “city-states” (Berlin, Hamburg, and Bremen).
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Early History</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-02.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-02.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/608px-Western_empire_verdun_843.png" alt="The division of the Holy Roman Empire in 843." style="float: right; width: 40%">
<ul>
<li>Most of Germany was never under Roman rule.
</li>
<li>Germanic tribes invaded Rome, led to empire's collapse in
western Europe.
</li>
<li>Germanic leaders adopted many Roman customs.
</li>
<li>
<strong>Charlemagne</strong> briefly created an empire ruling much of
modern France, Germany, and Italy, and had himself crowned as
first “Holy Roman Emperor.”
</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>My Three Grandsons</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-03.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-03.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Charlemagne's empire was eventually divided among his three
grandsons in 843 A.D.:
</p>
<ul>
<li>Charles ended up with most of what became modern France.
</li>
<li>Louis ended up with most of modern Germany and Austria.
</li>
<li>Lothair got the bits in the middle: northern Italy,
Switzerland, the Netherlands, and land along the Rhine (today
called <em>Alsace-Lorraine</em>) that Germany and France have
squabbled over ever since.
</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Holy Roman Empire</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-04.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-04.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The “Empire” eventually became synonymous with
Germany. Emperors often had little authority outside their home
kingdom or duchy. Rather than consolidating power, the various
territories became more independent over time.</p>
<p>Germany in the 1500s became increasingly divided because of the
actions of <strong>Martin Luther</strong>, a Catholic priest who protested
what he saw as the corruption of the Church.
</p>
<p>The <em>Protestant</em> faith took hold in many of the northern
and eastern states, while Catholicism remained strong in the
south and west, particularly in the lands under the control of
the <strong>Habsburg</strong> dynasty.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Wars Over Religion</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-05.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-05.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/Holy_Roman_Empire_ca.1600.svg" alt="The Holy Roman Empire circa 1600 AD" style="float: right; width: 25%">
<p>Wars broke out across Europe as Catholic rulers attempted to
reunite the faith by arms, while Protestant rulers attempted to
resist domination by the Catholic Church.</p>
<p>The conflict was particularly vicious in Germany, where Catholic
and Protestant territories were intermixed. The rule
of <em lang="la">cuius regio, eius religio</em> settled the conflict
for a time, but renewed conflict led to the <strong>Thirty Years
War</strong>.
</p>
<p>The war left Germany fragmented into over 300 states, all of
which had effective sovereignty; emperor mostly powerless.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Rise of Prussia</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-06.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-06.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/512px-Preussen-GrKF.jpg" alt="Early Prussian expansion." style="width: 55%; float: right">
<p>The eastern states of <strong>Brandenburg</strong> and <strong>Prussia</strong>
became unified under one ruler in 1618, and began to acquire
territories in Germany and further east, particularly in modern
Poland, through war and skillful negotiation, over the next three
centuries.</p>
<p>Prussia's aristocracy, the <strong lang="de">Junkers</strong>, were key to
expansion. They valued military might, diplomatic skills, and the
ability to run large estates worked by <em>serfs</em>.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Napoleon and Nationalism</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-07.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-07.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/640px-Europe_1812_map_en.png" alt="Map of Europe under Napoleon and his puppet states." style="width: 35%; float: right">
<p>The Napoleonic Wars swept across Germany in the early 19th
century. Much of Germany was united under
Napoleon's <em>Confederation of the Rhine</em>, although this was
largely a puppet state under Napoleon's rule.</p>
<p>Napoleon's defeat led to the creation of the <em>German
Confederation</em>, a similar arrangement with many of the former
territories rationalized; only about 40 states remained of the
over 300 that formed the old Holy Roman Empire. A stronger
feeling of German nationalism had also emerged.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Resurgence of Prussia</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-08.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-08.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/900px-Deutsches_Reich_1871-1918.png" alt="Map of the German Empire, 1871-1918" style="width: 45%; float: right">
<p>Prussia and Austria were the two largest states in the German
Confederation. Prussia wanted a Germany <em>without</em> Austria and
to be the dominant power.</p>
<p>Through a series of wars, the Prussian
chancellor <span lang="de">Otto von Bismarck</span> consolidated
most of the German territories, except Austria, into the
unified <strong>German Empire</strong> or <strong lang="de">Reich</strong>.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Second Reich</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-09.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-09.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Unlike Britain and France, Germany did not become fully
democratic; instead, the Junker aristocracy and the emperor
(<strong lang="de">Kaiser</strong>) ruled, although
the <em lang="de">Reichstag</em> did have some limited powers.
</p>
<p>Bismarck tried to forestall the development of the German SPD
(Social Democratic Party) by offering social programs to the working
class on his terms, effectively establishing a basic welfare state
years before Britain and France did.</p>
<p>Democracy might have emerged gradually as it had in Britain, but
war would again intervene.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>World War I</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-10.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-10.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The <em>Balance of Power</em> system that had largely kept the
peace in Europe collapsed in 1914 with the assassination of Archduke
Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo (modern Bosnia). Germany
and its allies in the <em>Central Powers</em> engaged in four years
of bloody conflict across the continent.
</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Impact of World War I</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-11.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-11.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/German_losses_after_WWI.svg" alt="Map of territorial losses after World War I by Germany" style="width: 33%; float: right">
<p>The war devastated the German economy and eventually the Kaiser
was deposed. Adding insult to injury, the peace settlement at
<strong lang="fr">Versailles</strong> blamed Germany for the war and demanded huge
reparations be paid to the victorious allies, further crippling
the economy. Germany also had to give up territory along its
borders to the victorious powers.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Dolchstoss and Weimar</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-12.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-12.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The German people were blindsided by the defeat; imperial
propaganda had portrayed the war as going much better for Germany
than it really was. Many Germans believed they had been betrayed by
disloyal Germans, rather than losing on the battlefield.
</p>
<p>Germany was left to pick up the pieces and establish a new
<em>republican</em> government, the <strong>Weimar Republic</strong>. Germans
had no real experience with democracy and many wanted a return to
monarchy—or at least the strong rule they associated with it.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Rise of Extremism</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-13.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-13.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Although Weimar eventually solved the problem
of <em>hyperinflation</em>, the mainstream political parties
squabbled and many Germans yearned for strong rule. Many Germans
looked to the ideas of German thinker Karl Marx as the answer, and
supported a Communist takeover, like what had happened in 1917 in
Russia.</p>
<p>Others, who bought the <em lang="de">Dolchstoss</em> myth, looked to the far
right <strong>National Socialist German Workers Party</strong>, who combined
socialist rhetoric with extreme German nationalism. Unlike the
Communists, they also had a charismatic leader: Adolph
Hitler. They came to be known as the <em>Nazis</em>.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Nazi Rise to Power</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-14.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-14.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378,_Braunschweig,_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg" alt="Adolph Hitler" style="width: 33%; float: right">
<p>In 1933, despite failing to gain a majority of the vote or seats
in the Reichstag, Hitler and his supporters successfully conned the
leaders of the <em>Center Party</em> into agreeing to hand over all
government power to Hitler as chancellor by passing the <em>Enabling
Act</em>.
</p>
<p>The Nazis quickly used their new power to outlaw other parties,
kill Communist Party supporters and leaders, and imprison or drive
most of the leaders of the other parties into exile.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>World War II</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-15.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-15.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Hitler vowed revenge for Germany's capitulation in the Great
War. He began to rearm Germany and worked to expand the <em>Third
Reich</em> to take over German-speaking lands that had been lost,
and expand into neighboring territories.
</p>
<p>By mid-1939, Germany had already conquered Austria and
Czechoslovakia without firing a shot. Hitler's invasion of Poland,
however, was fiercely resisted by the Poles and their allies
Britain and France, leading to open warfare.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>World War II</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-16.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-germany/cp-germany-16.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>While Germany's military <em lang="de">blitzkrieg</em> tactics were
successful in conquering most of Europe, as for Napoleon the
English Channel and the Russian Winter proved to be insurmountable
obstacles. Reversals on the Eastern Front and the Allied invasions
of Italy and Normandy rolled back the German gains.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Occupation</h2>
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<img src="img/cp04-germany/Map-Germany-1945.svg" alt="Occupation zones and lost lands of Germany in 1945." style="width: 40%; float: right">
<p>Germany again suffered humiliation. Vast territories to the east
were given to Poland and the Soviets, including old Prussia
itself. Millions of Germans were expelled and forced to move into
the new German borders.</p>
<p>Rather than governing itself, Germany was placed under
occupation by the four victorious allied powers. New German states
were created and placed under American, British, French, and
Soviet administration. Berlin was divided between the four powers
as well.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Allies Begin to Disagree</h2>
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<p>Tensions between the Soviets and the western allies began to
intensify. The Soviets stopped cooperating with the other allied
powers, and attempted to force them out of their zones in Berlin by
cutting off road and rail access.</p>
<p>The allied powers also disagreed about what to do about Germany;
the Soviets favored keeping Germany weak economically and thus
militarily, while the western allies increasingly believed that
repairing Germany's economy was the key to economic recovery in all
of Europe.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Split</h2>
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<p>The western powers responded to the tensions with the Soviets by
increasing their cooperation in their zones, introducing a new
currency known as the <em lang="de">deutsche Mark</em> and encouraging the
leaders of states in their zones to create a single civilian
government for those German states not in the Soviet zone.
</p>
<p>In 1949, this government was recognized by the allied powers as
the <em>Federal Republic of Germany</em> or West Germany. The
Soviets promptly set up a similar government in their zones of
occupation, including the Soviet sector of Berlin, known as
the <em>German Democratic Republic</em> or East Germany.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Germany's Constitution</h2>
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<p>The basic institutions of West Germany were continued when
Germany was reunited in 1990.</p>
<p>The constitution of Germany is known in English as the <strong>Basic
Law</strong> (<em lang="de">Grundgesetz</em>).
</p>
<p>Germany is a <em>federal</em> state: the 16
German states (<strong lang="de">Länder</strong>) have extensive powers
and can have substantially different laws from each other.
</p>
<p>However, like Britain, Germany has a <em>parliamentary</em> system
of governance, with ministers responsible to the
parliament. However, there are differences, because Germany is
both <em>federal</em> and a <em>republic</em> rather than a monarchy
like the U.K.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The President</h2>
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<p>The federal president (<em lang="de">Bundespräsident</em>) has
limited powers and serves as the <em>head of state</em>. He or she
is typically expected to remain above politics, although German
presidents are typically former politicians from one of the
leading political parties.</p>
<p>The president is chosen by a special joint meeting of the lower
house of parliament (the <b lang="de">Bundestag</b>) and several
hundred members of the state legislatures
(<i lang="de">Landtage</i>). Presidents serve a five-year term and
can be reelected once.</p>
<p>Since March 2017, the president has
been <span lang="de">Frank-Walter Steinmeier</span>, a former
politician and civil servant. He was reelected to a second term in
2022.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Chancellor</h2>
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<p>The equivalent to the <em>prime minister</em> in Germany is the
federal <strong>chancellor</strong>
(<em lang="de">Bundeskanzler</em>). Like the British prime minister,
the chancellor serves as head of government and is ultimately
responsible for the government's performance.</p>
<p>The first post-war chancellor, <span lang="de">Konrad
Adenauer</span>, who served 14 years, strongly influenced how his
successors have governed.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Olaf Scholz</h2>
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alt="Olaf Scholz">
<p>The current chancellor is <span lang="de">Olaf Scholz</span> of
the center-left Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), who has
been in office since 2021.</p>
<p>His cabinet is based a coalition government including three
parties: the Social Democrats, Alliance 90/The Greens, and the
Free Democrats (FDP).</p>
<p>Because the parties' main traditional colors are red, green, and
yellow, respectively, it is sometimes referred to as a “traffic
light coalition.”</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Changing Chancellors</h2>
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<p>Ousting a German chancellor is harder than getting rid of a
British prime minister; a <strong>constructive vote of
no-confidence</strong> is required, which means that there must be a
nominated new chancellor and cabinet that has majority support
before the existing chancellor can be removed.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Cabinet</h2>
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<p>German cabinets are comprised of politicians from the coalition
parties who serve in the <em lang="de">Bundestag</em>, usually in
rough proportion with their share of the vote.</p>
<p>Like in Britain, day-to-day government operations are the
responsibility of senior bureaucrats; cabinet ministers are
usually chosen based on their political importance to their
parties, not their expertise.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>German Ministries</h2>
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<p>German cabinets tend to be smaller than those in most other
countries.</p>
<p>The most powerful ministry is usually considered to be
the <em>Interior Ministry</em>, which oversees the federal law
enforcement agencies and the Office for Protection of the
Constitution (<em lang="de">Verfassungsschutz</em>); the latter
monitors extremist and anti-democratic groups, or groups suspected
of having those tendencies.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Bundestag</h2>
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<p>The <em lang="de">Bundestag</em> is effectively the lower house of
the German parliament. Like the British House of Commons, the
<span lang="de">Bundestag</span> is substantially larger than the
U.S. House of Representatives—since reunification, the minimum
size of the <span lang="de">Bundestag</span> has been 598 members.</p>
<p>Since reunification, the <span lang="de">Bundestag</span> has met
in Berlin in the rebuilt former <em lang="de">Reichstag</em>
building.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Bundestag</h2>
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<p><span lang="de">Bundestag</span> elections must take place every
46–48 months. The next election will most likely be held in
September or October 2025.</p>
<p>Party discipline in the <span lang="de">Bundestag</span> is not
quite as strict as in Britain, and committees of
the <span lang="de">Bundestag</span> take a more active role in
reviewing legislation than MPs in the Commons.</p>
</section>
<section><h2>The Bundesrat</h2>
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<p>The “upper house” of the German parliament is
the <strong lang="de">Bundesrat</strong>. The <span lang="de">Bundesrat</span>
has 69 members, who represent the 16 <span lang="de">Länder</span>
(each <span lang="de">Land</span> has 3–6 members).</p>
<p>The members of the <span lang="de">Bundesrat</span> are typically
also members of each state's cabinet.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Limits on the Bundesrat</h2>
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<p>Although each <span lang="de">Land</span> has as many votes as
they have members, the state's votes must be cast as
a <em>bloc</em>. States with coalition governments often must
abstain.</p>
<p>Although powerful, the <span lang="de">Bundesrat</span> only has
authority over certain legislation: budgetary issues and laws that
would affect the balance of power between the states and the
federal government.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Constitutional Court</h2>
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<p>Germany's <strong>Federal Constitutional Court</strong>
(<em lang="de">Bundesverfassungsgericht</em>) is also very important
politically; like the U.S. Supreme Court, it has the power to
consider whether laws passed by the federal or state legislatures
comply with the Basic Law.
</p>
<p>The Constitutional Court has 16 members, who are divided into two
8-member panels (“Senates”) that consider cases
independently to divide the court's workload.
</p>
<p>Unlike most of the other institutions of the federal government,
which today are based in Berlin, the Constitutional Court meets in
the city of <span lang="de">Karlsruhe</span>.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The European Parliament</h2>
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<p>Like the other members of the European Union, Germany also elects
representatives to the European Parliament in Strasbourg, France.
</p>
<p>The European Parliament was originally little more than a
discussion forum, but today has important powers to scrutinize the
EU's “executive branch” (the European Commission) and
laws proposed by the representatives of Europe's governments, the
Council of Ministers.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Political Parties in Germany</h2>
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<p>The two most important parties in Germany are:
</p>
<ul>
<img src="img/cp04-germany/461px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011239-0006,_Nuernberg,_Bundestagswahlplakate.jpg" style="width: 30%; float: right" alt="Election posters from 1961.">
<li><p>The Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and their sister
party, the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU),
collectively called the <strong>Union parties</strong>:
center-right.</p></li>
<li><p>The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD):
center-left.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Smaller Parties in Germany</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>The Left (<em lang="de">Die Linke.</em>), a merger of a left-wing
offshoot of the SPD with the former East German Socialist Unity
Party (SED).</p></li>
<li><p>Alliance '90/The Greens (<em lang="de">Bündnis 90/Die
Grünen</em>).</p></li>
<li><p>The Free Democratic Party (FDP), historically a regular
coalition partner of the CDU/CSU: free market, socially
liberal.</p></li>
<li>Alternative for Germany (<span lang="de">AfD</span>):
Euroskeptic, right wing.</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Proportional Representation in Germany</h2>
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<p>Unlike the UK, elections to the <span lang="de">Bundestag</span> use
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nRQS_BbaP98"><em>mixed-member
proportional representation</em></a> (MMP, also used
in <a href="https://youtu.be/JamSJ_yguqc">New Zealand</a>).</p>
<p>299 members are elected from single-member districts on a
winner-takes-all basis using the “first vote.”</p>
<p>Then, at least 299 additional members are chosen from the
various <em lang="de">Länder</em> from party lists, to ensure each
party's seats are proportional to the “second vote.”</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>More on MMP in Germany</h2>
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<p>Parties (except those representing certain ethnic minority
groups) must get at least 5% of the party list vote, or win at least
one district seat, to get any seats. Earning <em>list</em> seats
requires 5% of the vote or winning three or more district seats.</p>
<p>In 2013, both the FDP and the AfD fell just short of the
5% <em>threshold</em>, and neither party received seats as a
result. Overall nearly 15% of second votes went to parties that
didn't win seats.</p>
<p>So while Germany's system is relatively proportional, it still
gives an advantage to bigger parties. This is deliberately designed
to reduce the risk of <em>extreme multipartism</em>.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Wessis and Ossis</h2>
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<p>Politically and culturally, East and West Germany grew apart
during the Cold War. While both sides recovered from the war, the
“miracle” in the west was not replicated under Communist rule in the
east.</p>
<p>After reunification, the eastern states' economies suffered again
as state-run businesses were shut down, privatized, or tried to
adapt.</p>
<p><span lang="de">Wessis</span> resented paying to extend Germany's
safety net to the east, while <span lang="de">Ossis</span> believed
the rest of Germany looked down on them.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Legacy of Nazism</h2>
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<p>In the west, <em>denazification</em> mostly extended to Nazi
leaders and those who been volunteers for the SS. When the Cold War
set in, economic recovery was prioritized and the western powers
needed experienced people to run West Germany, many of whom were
party functionaries.</p>
<p>In the east, the Nazi purge was more complete (since the
communists were their bitter enemies); the official ideology
treated the Nazis almost like a “foreign power,” so
ordinary East Germans were absolved of guilt.</p>
<p>Many Germans, even today, are unsure how to deal with the legacy
of Nazism and the role of ordinary Germans in it.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>American-Style Campaigns</h2>
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candidates' debate">
<p>Modern political campaigns in Germany—like in Britain—have become
increasingly “presidential”; advertising focuses more on party
leaders and less on political issues, particularly by the CDU/CSU
and SPD.</p>
<p>Televised “American-style debates” have become common in Germany;
Britain had its first series of American-style debates in 2010.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>German Federalism</h2>
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<p>Germany's 16 <span lang="de">Länder</span> are in many ways under less federal control
than their American counterparts; they have more financial
resources and more independent authority.
</p>
<p>The national authorities have limited leverage
over <span lang="de">Land</span> policies that they disagree with;
further, the <span lang="de">Bundesrat</span> makes it harder
for the national government to erode state authority than the
American system does today.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>German <em>Corporatism</em>
</h2>
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<p>During the Cold War era, Germany used a system for managing
economic disputes between labor and management that is common in
western Europe: <em>corporatism</em>.</p>
<p>Under corporatism, the relationship between business and labor is
based on negotiations between the two sides under government
supervision. Negotiations are typically by <em>industry</em> rather
than business (unlike union-management negotiations in
America). The government then enforces the agreement.</p>
<p>In Germany in particular, the law tends to give organized labor a
bit more power than in Britain and America today.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The German Economy Today</h2>
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<p>Like Britain, Germany has wrestled with trying to afford
its <em>welfare state</em>. West Germany's businesses were never as
weak as Britain's (in part because most were never nationalized),
but increased competition has made it harder for Germany to
compete in the global marketplace.</p>
<p>Youth unemployment, in particular, is a major challenge; there
aren't enough jobs being created, since German companies have
turned to automation and off-shoring—including to the United
States—to avoid expensive German labor costs.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Europe and the Euro</h2>
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<p>Although Germans support the European Union much more than
Britons do, the loss of the
<span lang="de">Mark</span> in favor of the euro has been
unpopular.
</p>
<p>Germans particularly resent paying for <em>bailouts</em> for (what