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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>The United Kingdom</title>
<link rel="author" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reset.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/reveal.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="dist/theme/beige.css" id="theme">
<!-- For syntax highlighting -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="plugin/highlight/zenburn.css">
<!-- Local overrides -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<div class="reveal">
<!-- Any section element inside of this container is displayed as a slide -->
<div class="slides">
<section class="vcard">
<h1>United Kingdom</h1>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" alt="Flag of the United Kingdom" class="noborder" style="width: 25%">
<h3><a rel="author" class="url n" href="http://www.cnlawrence.com/">
<span class="honorific-prefix">Dr.</span>
<span class="given-name">Christopher</span>
<abbr class="additional-name">N.</abbr>
<span class="family-name">Lawrence</span></a></h3>
<h4 class="org">Middle Georgia State University</h4>
<h4>POLS 2301: Comparative Politics</h4>
<h5><a id="narrationToggle" onclick="toggleAutoplay(this);return false;" href="#">🔊 Disable Narration</a></h5>
</section>
<!-- XXX Actual slides go here -->
<section>
<h2>Geography</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-01.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-01.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/United_Kingdom_countries.svg" style="float: right; width: 30%">
<p>Today Britain (officially, the <em>United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland</em>) comprises
four <em>countries</em> within the British Isles:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>On/around the island of <em>Great Britain</em>:</p></li>
<ul>
<li>England (53 million people)</li>
<li>Scotland (5.3 million)</li>
<li>Wales (3.1 million)</li>
</ul>
<li><p>On the island of <em>Ireland</em>:</p></li>
<ul>
<li>Northern Ireland (1.8 million)</li>
</ul>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Settlement and Early History</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-02.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-02.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<!--
<p>
-->
<ul>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" style="width: 30%; float: right" alt="Stonehenge">
<li>~9500 BCE: Human settlement resumes after last glacial period.
</li>
<li>~600 BCE: Celtic settlement of Britain.
</li>
<li>43–410 CE: Roman Britain.
<ul>
<li>Some cultural influence but little settlement.
</li>
<li>Celtic culture remained in Scotland, Ireland, and Welsh highlands.
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>~450 CE: Invasions of England by the <em>Angles</em>
and <em>Saxons</em> (Germanic tribes).
</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>1066 And All That</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-03.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-03.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<ul>
<li>865–954: Vikings rule much of England (the <em>Danelaw</em>).
</li>
<li>790–1030: Viking invasions and rule of Normandy
(part of northern France).
</li>
<li>1066: Succession crisis in England due to death of Edward the
Confessor.
<ul>
<li>Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex
</li>
<li>Harald Hardrada, King of Norway
</li>
<li>William, Duke of Normandy
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Norman Conquest</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-04.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-04.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/Norman-conquest-1066.svg" style="float: right; width: 45%; background: #fff">
<p>Harold attempted to deal with the rival claimants to the throne in
Britain, defeating most of them.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, William gathered an army and invaded across the
English Channel, defeating and killing Harold at the <em>Battle of
Hastings</em>.</p>
<p>William quickly consolidated his position and was crowned King in
London on Christmas Day, 1066.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Norman Rule in England</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-05.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-05.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The Normans imposed their own legal and political system on
England, based on <em>feudalism</em>; King William rewarded his
Norman supporters with land and aristocratic titles.</p>
<p>William's court, and his successors, continued to use French as
their language, influencing the evolution of the English language.</p>
<p>William conducted a detailed census of his lands, compiled in
the <em>Domesday Book</em>, and used it to impose taxes on his new
subjects.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Magna Carta</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-06.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-06.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/Magna_Carta.jpg" style="float: right; width: 25%">
<p>William's successors struggled to maintain control; each king
wanted to rule with an iron fist, but he had to rely on his barons
and dukes for taxes and men to fight the king's battles.</p>
<p>In 1215, King John's nobles rebelled. To try to settle the
dispute, John signed the <strong>Magna Carta</strong> or Great Charter,
agreeing to respect the feudal rights of the nobility.</p>
<p>The tradition of the Magna Carta made it difficult for future
kings to attempt to impose <em>absolutism</em> on Britain.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Parliament and King</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-07.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-07.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The king's need for taxes also required him to summon the
nobility and Knights of the Shire to the king's court to gain their
assent to new taxes.</p>
<p>These gatherings of the nobility and knights became known
as <strong>Parliament</strong>; the nobility came to comprise the <strong>House
of Lords</strong> while the Knights of the Shire, representatives of
the counties, formed the <strong>House of Commons</strong>.</p>
<p>After Henry VIII broke with Rome, he used Parliament to help
legally justify both his new Protestant church and his marital
chicanery.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Great Britain under One King</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-08.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-08.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/Flag_of_Wales_2.svg" style="float: right; width: 15%">
<p>In the 14th century, Edward I had conquered Wales; over the next
two centuries, English law was extended to cover Wales as well.</p>
<p><img src="img/cp02-britain/Flag_of_Scotland.svg" style="float:
right; width: 15%"> Scotland proved impervious to invasion;
however, with the death of Elizabeth I, the closest heir to the
English throne was James VI of Scotland, who became James I of
England as well in 1603. Scotland kept its own Parliament
until 1707.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Ireland under English Rule</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-09.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-09.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p><img src="img/cp02-britain/Royal_Standard_of_Ireland_(1542%E2%80%931801).svg" style="float: right; width: 15%">English kings had also begun to
gradually gain control of Ireland, starting from Dublin and
working their way west.
</p>
<p>In 1600s, James I promoted the settlement of the north of Ireland
by English and Scottish settlers: the <em>Plantation of Ulster</em>.
</p>
<p>Unlike Wales, Ireland had its own parliament until 1801, although
it was much weaker than England's or Scotland's. Most real power was
in the hands of the <em>Lord Lieutenant of Ireland</em>.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>Charles I and Civil War</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-10.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-10.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/King_Charles_I_after_original_by_van_Dyck.jpg" style="float: right; width: 20%">
<p>Both James and his son, Charles I, tried to rule England like
the Stuart kings had ruled Scotland, in a more absolutist fashion.</p>
<p>Charles' efforts to bully Parliament into raising taxes to
support his wars backfired, leading to the <em>English Civil
War</em> (1642–48). Parliamentary forces led by Oliver
Cromwell captured Charles; eventually Charles was tried and beheaded
for treason.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Commonwealth and the Restoration (1649–60)</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-11.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-11.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p><img src="img/cp02-britain/Standard_of_Oliver_Cromwell_(1653%E2%80%931659).svg" style="float: right; width: 15%">Parliament replaced the monarchy
with the <em>Commonwealth</em>, a republic. Oliver Cromwell, however,
soon disbanded Parliament and ruled as a military dictator under the
title <em>Lord Protector</em>.</p>
<p>When Cromwell died, his ineffective son Richard succeeded
him. However, the army soon ousted Richard, eventually reinstated
the pre-Commonwealth Parliament, and invited Charles' son to return
from exile to take the throne, restoring the monarchy in 1660.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Glorious Revolution</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-12.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-12.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Although most were happy to have the monarchy back, King
Charles II's pro-Catholic sympathies were unpopular in much of
Britain, particularly among the nobility.</p>
<p>When the openly Catholic James II succeeded to the throne in
1685, and had a son who would be raised Catholic in 1688, the idea
of a Catholic dynasty became intolerable to Parliament.</p>
<p>Several years earlier, James' eldest daughter Mary had married a
Protestant noble, William, Prince of Orange
and <em lang="nl">stadtholder</em> of much of the Netherlands;
William was also the son of Charles I's eldest daughter.
<p>English nobles secretly invited William to invade the
country, and, meeting little resistance in England, William and
Mary were soon crowned as co-ruling king and queen.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Bill of Rights and the Succession</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-13.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-13.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>The Glorious Revolution confirmed, once and for all, the
supremacy of Parliament; Parliament would ultimately decide, from
now on, who would be king or queen.</p>
<p>William and Mary also agreed to the (English) <strong>Bill of
Rights</strong>, which further limited the political power of the
monarch and guaranteed Parliament and its members certain
rights.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Cabinet Government</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-14.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-14.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<img src="img/cp02-britain/Retuched_Painting_of_Robert_Walpole.jpg" style="float: right; width: 20%">
<p>During the reign of Queen Anne, the day to day affairs of state
were increasingly left to her advisors to manage, a trend that
continued when she was succeeded by King George I, who had been
the ruler of the German state of Hanover.
<p>George left the affairs of Britain mostly to a <em>cabinet</em>
of <em>ministers</em> who served in parliament, led by a <em>prime
minister</em>, Sir Robert Walpole.</p>
<p>Although his great grandson George III tried to rule a bit more
forcefully in Britain—leading, in part, to the American
Revolution—the failure of his policies and his poor health allowed
Parliament to regain the upper hand.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Unrepresentative Parliament</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-15.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-15.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Although Parliament was now supreme, it was not particularly
representative or democratic. Both the conservative <em>Tories</em>
and the liberal <em>Whigs</em> were comprised of aristocrats and the
well-to-do.</p>
<p>The House of Lords was still full of hereditary peers, while the
Commons included dozens of representatives of so-called <em>rotten
boroughs</em>. Few non-landowners could vote.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Reform Acts</h2>
<audio controls="controls" data-autoplay="autoplay" preload="metadata">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-16.opus" type="audio/ogg; codecs=opus">
<source data-src="audio/cp-britain/cp-britain-16.mp3" type="audio/mpeg">
</audio>
<p>Starting in 1832, the electorate was gradually expanded by a
series of three <em>Reform Acts</em> that abolished the rotten
boroughs, gave more representation to the new cities and towns that
were growing due to industrialization, and allowed more men to
vote.</p>
<p>However, no women could vote until 1918 (when, at the same time,
all men 21 or older were granted the right to vote), and full adult
universal suffrage did not come about until 1928.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Rise of Labour</h2>
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<ul>
<li>Tories evolved into the Conservative Party.</li>
<li>Whigs evolved into the Liberal Party.</li>
<li>Neither represented interests of working-class citizens.</li>
<li><strong lang="en-GB">Labour Party</strong> established in 1900, with
support of labor unions. Demands:
<ul>
<li>Establishment of a <em>welfare state</em>.</li>
<li><em>Nationalization</em> of major sectors of the economy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Liberal Party support declined as Labour gained votes.</li>
<li>Labour's landslide victory in the 1945 election allowed it to
pursue this agenda.</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Post-War Britain</h2>
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<ul>
<li><p>Post-war economic boom allowed Labour to nationalize
industries and build the welfare state.
</p></li>
<li><p>Conservatives came to accept much of this as inevitable.
</p></li>
<li><p>Economic crises of 1970s and recovery of Japan and Germany
hurt competitiveness of British industry.</p></li>
<li><p>Since the 1980s both major parties have pursued reforms to
reduce cost of the welfare state and privatize industry, with
mixed success.</p></li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The British Constitution</h2>
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<p>Britain lacks a single, codified constitution. The basic
principles of British government are a mix of traditions, laws, and
customs.</p>
<p>The main institutions are:</p>
<ul>
<li>The Monarch</li>
<li>The Cabinet and Prime Minister</li>
<li>Parliament</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Monarch</h2>
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<p>Although the king (or queen), by tradition and law, reigns over
the United Kingdom, in practice he or she does not rule. Instead,
by custom, the king only acts on the advice of his ministers,
usually the prime minister.</p>
<p>As <em>head of state</em>, the monarch does have an important
ceremonial role as the representative of Britain. Even symbolic
acts, like Queen Elizabeth II's visit to Ireland in 2011, can have
important political consequences.
</p></section>
<section>
<h2>The Cabinet</h2>
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<p>Real power is vested in the <em>cabinet</em>
or <em>government</em>. Members of the cabinet are typically senior
members of the majority party in the House of Commons; most today
are members of the Commons, although usually some are members of the
House of Lords.</p>
<p>Each member of the cabinet has a <strong>portfolio</strong> that
they are politically responsible for. They may or may not have any
particular expertise in that area of government, however; the
day-to-day operation of the government agency they head is left up
to a senior <em>civil servant</em> instead.</p>
<p>The cabinet also is responsible for the <em>royal
prerogative</em>, which are the powers of government that have not
been assumed by Parliament. The prerogative includes many foreign
policy matters, control of the armed forces, and the pardon
power.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>More on The Cabinet</h2>
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<p>The cabinet practices <em>collective responsibility</em>:
disagreements are aired in private, but the cabinet presents a
unified front in public.</p>
<p>Typically the most prestigious position in the cabinet, other
than the prime minister, is that of the <em>Chancellor of the
Exchequer</em>. The Chancellor is responsible for producing the
annual budget.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Majority and Coalition Cabinets</h2>
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<p>Most of the time, Britain has <em>majority</em> governments with
only one party, controlling a majority of the seats in the House
of Commons, represented in the cabinet.</p>
<p>However, from May 2010 until May 2015, Britain had
a <em>coalition</em> government including multiple parties (the
Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrats) for the first time
since World War II.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Cabinet Responsibility</h2>
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<p>The cabinet, collectively, is said to be <em>responsible</em> to
Parliament. Ministers must account for their actions to the Commons
and Lords, and are subject to regular questioning such
as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL40441042C458B62B"
><em>Prime Minister's Questions</em></a>, where members of each
chamber demand answers to their questions about decisions they and
the government have made.</p>
<p>If a majority of the Commons decides that the cabinet is no
longer fit to rule, they can cast a <em>vote of no confidence</em>
in the government; the government is then obliged to resign, and if
no new cabinet can be formed quickly, new elections would be
held.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Prime Minister</h2>
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<p>The <em>prime minister</em> is the leader of the government. Today,
he or she typically chooses the cabinet, and is ultimately
responsible for the performance of the government.</p>
<p>The current prime minister is Keir Starmer of
the <span lang="en-GB">Labour Party</span>, who has been in office
since July 2024.</p>
<p>In theory, the prime minister need not be a member of the House
of Commons, but in practice he or she has always been an MP for the
past century.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Whips and Party Discipline</h2>
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<p>Prime ministers appoint <em>whips</em> to keep rank-and-file
members of their party (<em>backbenchers</em>) in line and ensure
they know how to vote on bills and amendments before Parliament.</p>
<p>Unlike in the U.S., <em>party discipline</em> is very strict in
Britain; voting against the party whip even once can lead to an MP
being thrown out of the party.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Parliament</h2>
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<p>Legally, Parliament (the law-making part of the government)
consists of:</p>
<ul>
<li>The Monarch</li>
<li>The House of Commons</li>
<li>The House of Lords</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2>King-in-Parliament</h2>
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<p>The monarch's public role today is mostly limited to presiding
over the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bbDtU9EcZDE"><em>State
Opening of Parliament</em></a>, where he or she delivers a speech
outlining the plans of the prime minister.</p>
<p>The monarch also, in theory, has the power to withhold <em>royal
assent</em> from legislation—effectively, vetoing it—although no
monarch has done so since Queen Anne in 1708.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Electing the House of Commons</h2>
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<p>The Commons consists of 650 members, elected
via <em>first-past-the-post</em> (plurality) elections from
single-member constituencies across the United Kingdom.</p>
<p>If an MP dies or resigns, she or he is replaced at
a <em>by-election</em>.</p>
<p>By law and constitutional convention, the Commons must hold an
election at least once every five years. Prime ministers can—and
often do—request a dissolution of Parliament before the five years
is up, which will lead to an early election.</p>
</section>
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<section>
<h2>Fixed-Term Parliaments</h2>
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<p>A law passed in 2011 makes it harder for an “early”
election to take place:
</p>
<ul>
<li>Either two-thirds of the total membership of the Commons
must vote for an early election to take place, or</li>
<li>The government must lose a vote of no confidence (unless a
new government with the confidence of the Commons is formed
within 14 days).</li>
</ul>
<p>Intended to stop PMs from strategically scheduling early
elections for their party's benefit, but hasn't worked and is
expected to be repealed.</p>
</section>
-->
<section>
<h2>The Role of the Commons</h2>
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<p>The Commons chamber is arranged so the governing party or
coalition sits to the Speaker's right and the <em>Opposition</em>,
the largest party not in the Government, sits to the left; members
of the other non-government parties usually also sit on the left, to
symbolize their opposition to the government.</p>
<p>The Opposition appoints a <em>shadow cabinet</em> of party
spokespeople, who typically ask questions during Question Time.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Backbenchers and the Speaker</h2>
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<p>Members of the Cabinet and Shadow Cabinet are
called <em>frontbenchers</em>, since they sit on the front row near
the speaker; rank-and-file MPs are called <em>backbenchers</em>.</p>
<p>The Speaker—unlike his or her American counterpart—is politically
neutral; even at subsequent elections, the Speaker runs for
reelection as an independent member.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Committees in the Commons</h2>
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<p>Unlike in the U.S., <em>committees</em> in the Commons are
relatively weak and a fairly new innovation. Because of party
discipline, the prime minister usually gets his way on
legislation.</p>
<p>Instead, Commons committees typically scrutinize government
agencies and the bureaucracy. They may also look into scandals and
illegal conduct by the Government.</p>
<p>Frontbench MPs typically are not members of committees since they
have other responsibilities (or it would be a conflict of interest).</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The House of Lords</h2>
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<p>Today, the House of Lords consists of around 800 peers, the vast
majority of whom are <em>life peers</em>, who are nominally
appointed by the monarch but in practice are named by the prime
minister. The <em>hereditary peers</em>, over 800 aristocrats who
inherited their title, choose 90 <em>representative peers</em> to
sit in the Lords on their behalf.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>What do the Lords do?</h2>
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<p>Historically, the Lords was roughly equal in power with the
Commons. For the past century, however, the Lords has only had the
power to delay—not completely block—legislation proposed by the
Commons.</p>
<p>However, the Lords play an important role in scrutinizing
legislation proposed by the Government; in some ways, they work more
like committees in the U.S. Congress than Commons committees do.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Reforming the Lords?</h2>
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<p>Reform of the House of Lords to make it a more democratic
institution has been debated, off-and-on, for years. Although all of
the parties agree it <em>should</em> be reformed, a lack of
agreement on <em>how</em> the Lords should be reformed has led to a
lack of action.</p>
<p>Many fear an elected upper house would either overshadow the
Commons or become a dumping ground for mediocre politicians—much
like the European Parliament was perceived to be.</p>
<p>Abolition is also an option; the <em>devolved assemblies</em> are
all <em>unicameral</em>, as are some national parliaments today.</p>
<p>For now, the current Labour government has committed to removing
the voting rights of the remaining hereditary peers, which would
leave just the life peers remaining. Members would also be required
to retire at the age of 80.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Legal System</h2>
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<p>The legal systems in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland are
based on <em>common law</em> like in the United States. The laws
of England and Wales are mostly identical.</p>
<p>Scottish law is based on a combination of <em>common law</em> and
continental-style <em>civil law</em>. Other ways Scottish law differs:</p>
<ul>
<li><em>Not proven</em>: third possible verdict in criminal cases.</li>
<li>Jury verdicts in criminal cases are by a simple majority,
rather than a supermajority.</li>
</ul>
<p>British judges are appointed by the government based on
recommendations by an independent judicial appointments
commission. Unlike in the U.S., judges are not chosen by politicians
or elected by voters.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>The Supreme Court</h2>
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<p>Since 2009, the <strong>Supreme Court of the United
Kingdom</strong> has been the highest court in Britain for all civil
matters, along with criminal matters in England, Wales, and Northern
Ireland.</p>
<p>The Supreme Court also has the power to decide whether or not an
action by the devolved governments in Northern Ireland, Scotland,
and Wales is within their legal powers.</p>
<p>Unlike the highest courts in most other democracies, the Supreme
Court cannot declare a law passed by Parliament to be
<em>unconstitutional</em>, although it can find an action by the
government unlawful if it exceeds the powers delegated to it by
law.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Devolution and Quasi-Federalism</h2>
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<p>In the past two decades, Britain has <em>devolved</em> power over
many domestic matters from the government in London to elected
assemblies in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.</p>
<p>Powers devolved include education, health care, transportation,
economic development, and language policy.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Powers of Devolved Governments</h2>
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<p>Each devolved assembly selects its own government, headed by
a <em>first minister</em>, responsible for day-to-day governing and
setting the policy agenda.</p>
<p>The powers of each assembly are a bit different; the Scottish
Parliament generally has the most independent power while the
Welsh Parliament (<em lang="cy">Senedd</em>) and Northern Ireland
Assembly have a bit less.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Devolution in Northern Ireland</h2>
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<p>In Northern Ireland, rules require <em>power sharing</em> between
the Protestant and Catholic communities. All cabinets are
coalitions including both Unionist and Nationalist parties.</p>
<p>When a cabinet cannot be formed that meets with approval of both
communities, Northern Ireland reverts to <em>direct rule</em> by the
UK government, as was the case from 1972 to 1999.</p>
<p>Designed to avoid a recurrence of the Protestant/Unionist
domination that took place when Northern Ireland was under “home
rule” from 1921 to 1972 and the subsequent <em>Troubles</em>.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Devolution in England?</h2>
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<p>Although there was a proposal to set up <em>regional
assemblies</em> across England about a decade ago, the only one
that was established was for Greater London, the <em>London
Assembly</em>.</p>
<p>Debate over whether all UK MPs should vote on laws that only
affect England—called the “West Lothian Question”—has led to
discussion of whether there should be a separate <em>English</em>
Parliament as well.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Political Parties</h2>
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