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<html><body>
<htmlpagefooter name="footer-left" style="display:none">
<div style="text-align: left;">{PAGENO} Example footer</div>
</htmlpagefooter>
<htmlpagefooter name="footer-right" style="display:none">
<div style="text-align: right;">Example footer {PAGENO}</div>
</htmlpagefooter>
<sethtmlpagefooter name="footer-right" value="on" />
<tocentry level="0" content="Example Section"></tocentry>
<tocentry level="1" content="The Middle Ages"><bookmark content="The Middle Ages" /></tocentry><h1>The Middle Ages</h1>
<p>The Middle Ages was a period of approximately 1000 years of
history; generally accepted as spanning from the fall of the Roman
Empire (toward the end of the 5th century) to the Protestant
reformation in the 16th century. This period began with a
demographic downturn at the end of the Roman imperial era, with
European populations shrinking and many cities and rural estates
abandoned. A cooling climate, disease, and political disorder each
played a part in this opening period which saw Classical
Mediterranean civilization eclipsed. Across Europe, there emerged
smaller, more localized hybrid societies combining Roman, Christian
and Germanic or Celtic barbarian influences. By the 9th and 10th
centuries, populations had reached their minima, and Europe became
a largely rural and somewhat backward region. Commerce and learning
flourished in the Islamic world, China and India during this the
same period. Islamic armies conquered Spain during the 7th and 8th
centuries, but were defeated by the Frankish kingdom in 732 when
they attempted to enter France.</p>
<tocentry level="2" content="The turn of the first millennium"><bookmark content="The turn of the first millennium" /><h2>The turn of the first millennium</h2></tocentry>
<p>The turn of the first millennium saw renewed growth and
activity, as kings and cities consolidated their authority and
began to repopulate lands left empty by Rome's decline. Warmer
weather after 900 allowed more land to be brought into food
production. The feudal system of agriculture, where peasants were
tied to their estates by obligations to local lords or to the
church, provided a degree of economic stability. This was aided by
the arrival in Europe of the horse collar from Asia, which
increased crop yields by allowing plows to be drawn by horse,
rather than by slower oxen. Commercial towns flourished in England,
France and the Low Countries. German rulers dispatched monks and
peasants to clear forests and settle in Eastern Europe and the
Baltic regions. The city-states of northern Italy rose in wealth
and influence. Islamic Spain became a center of learning and
culture where Christians, Muslims and Jews coexisted in relative
amity. Despite many local wars and disputes between knights, the
High Middle Ages, from 1000-1250, saw growing populations and
prosperity enough to build great cathedrals and send European
armies abroad on crusades.</p>
<p>After 1250, demographic stagnation emerged. Population growth
slowed or stopped as the limits of medieval agriculture were
reached. Major conflicts between powerful kingdoms, such as the
Hundred Years' War between England and France, became more
frequent. The Christian church, previously secure in its spiritual
authority, was racked by schisms and increasing financial
corruption. The year 1348 saw a catastrophe as the virulent bubonic
plague (the "Black Death"), entered Italy, carried by ships from
Asia. It spread across the continent over three years killing, by
some estimates, one-third of all Europeans. Many believed it was
the end of the world foretold by Christian myth. Along with its
suffering, the plague wrought economic havoc, driving up the cost
of labor and making the old feudal system untenable, as surviving
peasants scorned its demands.</p>
<p>The following century and a half transformed Europe from a
patchwork of feudal fiefdoms, under loose royal and church control,
into a collection of newborn but increasingly unified national
states. Towns became centers of resistance and dissent to the old
royal and church authorities. Former noble and knightly influence
declined, and rulers realigned themselves toward the increasingly
wealthy and influential burgher and merchant classes. Emergence of
the printing press and spreading literacy, increased religious and
political conflict in many countries. By 1500, Christopher Columbus
had sailed across the ocean to the New World, and Martin Luther was
about to take much of Europe out of the orbit of the Roman church.
These developments opened the modern era of history, and brought
the Middle Ages to their true end.</p>
<p>A number of modern institutions have their roots in the Middle
Ages. The concept of nation-states with strong central governmental
power stems from the consolidation of powers by some kings of the
Middle Ages. These kings formed royal courts, appointed sheriffs,
formed royal armies, and began to collect taxes - all concepts
central to modern government. A leading example was the French
kingdom, ruled by the Capetian dynasty from 987 until the early
14th century. French provincial nobles and their castles and
knights were brought under effective royal control during this
time, and national unity benefited. Conversely Germany, which had
strong kings in the 10th and early 11th centuries, suffered a
series of political conflicts during the High Middle Ages between
rulers and the Church, which weakened national cohesion and
elevated regional lords to great influence.</p>
<p>During the Middle Ages, Kings originally called Parliaments to
explain their policies and ask for money. Parliaments at this time
represented the three collective estates - the clergy, nobles, and
merchants - not individuals.</p>
<p>The idea of limited government also arose, challenging the
traditional notion at the time that rulers were all-powerful (such
as a Roman emperor or an Egyptian pharaoh). The most substantial
occurrence was in 1215, when the nobles of England asserted their
rights against King John in the<i>Magna Carta</i>. In
addition, the notion of parliaments, as explained above, came into
existence, and the reciprocal nature of the feudal and manorial
contracts laid the most basic groundwork for the concept of the
social contract.</p>
<p>In addition, the formation of governmental bureaucracy began
during this time, as the royal councils of medieval kings evolved
into modern government departments.</p>
<p>Finally, the regulation of goods and services became
increasingly prominent during the Middle Ages, as guilds protected
the consumer from poor products.</p>
<p>Thinkers of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment tended to look
at the Middle Ages with scorn, but the Middle Ages were essential
in laying the groundwork for the times to come.</p>
<pagebreak />
<tocentry level="1" content="The Jet Ages"><bookmark content="The Jet Ages" /></tocentry><h1>The Jet Ages</h1>
<p>The Middle Ages was a period of approximately 1000 years of
history; generally accepted as spanning from the fall of the Roman
Empire (toward the end of the 5th century) to the Protestant
reformation in the 16th century. This period began with a
demographic downturn at the end of the Roman imperial era, with
European populations shrinking and many cities and rural estates
abandoned. A cooling climate, disease, and political disorder each
played a part in this opening period which saw Classical
Mediterranean civilization eclipsed. Across Europe, there emerged
smaller, more localized hybrid societies combining Roman, Christian
and Germanic or Celtic barbarian influences. By the 9th and 10th
centuries, populations had reached their minima, and Europe became
a largely rural and somewhat backward region. Commerce and learning
flourished in the Islamic world, China and India during this the
same period. Islamic armies conquered Spain during the 7th and 8th
centuries, but were defeated by the Frankish kingdom in 732 when
they attempted to enter France.</p>
<tocentry level="2" content="The turn of the second millennium"><bookmark content="The turn of the second millennium" /><h2>The turn of the second millennium</h2></tocentry>
<p>The turn of the first millennium saw renewed growth and
activity, as kings and cities consolidated their authority and
began to repopulate lands left empty by Rome's decline. Warmer
weather after 900 allowed more land to be brought into food
production. The feudal system of agriculture, where peasants were
tied to their estates by obligations to local lords or to the
church, provided a degree of economic stability. This was aided by
the arrival in Europe of the horse collar from Asia, which
increased crop yields by allowing plows to be drawn by horse,
rather than by slower oxen. Commercial towns flourished in England,
France and the Low Countries. German rulers dispatched monks and
peasants to clear forests and settle in Eastern Europe and the
Baltic regions. The city-states of northern Italy rose in wealth
and influence. Islamic Spain became a center of learning and
culture where Christians, Muslims and Jews coexisted in relative
amity. Despite many local wars and disputes between knights, the
High Middle Ages, from 1000-1250, saw growing populations and
prosperity enough to build great cathedrals and send European
armies abroad on crusades.</p>
<p>After 1250, demographic stagnation emerged. Population growth
slowed or stopped as the limits of medieval agriculture were
reached. Major conflicts between powerful kingdoms, such as the
Hundred Years' War between England and France, became more
frequent. The Christian church, previously secure in its spiritual
authority, was racked by schisms and increasing financial
corruption. The year 1348 saw a catastrophe as the virulent bubonic
plague (the "Black Death"), entered Italy, carried by ships from
Asia. It spread across the continent over three years killing, by
some estimates, one-third of all Europeans. Many believed it was
the end of the world foretold by Christian myth. Along with its
suffering, the plague wrought economic havoc, driving up the cost
of labor and making the old feudal system untenable, as surviving
peasants scorned its demands.</p>
<p>The following century and a half transformed Europe from a
patchwork of feudal fiefdoms, under loose royal and church control,
into a collection of newborn but increasingly unified national
states. Towns became centers of resistance and dissent to the old
royal and church authorities. Former noble and knightly influence
declined, and rulers realigned themselves toward the increasingly
wealthy and influential burgher and merchant classes. Emergence of
the printing press and spreading literacy, increased religious and
political conflict in many countries. By 1500, Christopher Columbus
had sailed across the ocean to the New World, and Martin Luther was
about to take much of Europe out of the orbit of the Roman church.
These developments opened the modern era of history, and brought
the Middle Ages to their true end.</p>
<p>A number of modern institutions have their roots in the Middle
Ages. The concept of nation-states with strong central governmental
power stems from the consolidation of powers by some kings of the
Middle Ages. These kings formed royal courts, appointed sheriffs,
formed royal armies, and began to collect taxes - all concepts
central to modern government. A leading example was the French
kingdom, ruled by the Capetian dynasty from 987 until the early
14th century. French provincial nobles and their castles and
knights were brought under effective royal control during this
time, and national unity benefited. Conversely Germany, which had
strong kings in the 10th and early 11th centuries, suffered a
series of political conflicts during the High Middle Ages between
rulers and the Church, which weakened national cohesion and
elevated regional lords to great influence.</p>
<p>During the Middle Ages, Kings originally called Parliaments to
explain their policies and ask for money. Parliaments at this time
represented the three collective estates - the clergy, nobles, and
merchants - not individuals.</p>
<p>The idea of limited government also arose, challenging the
traditional notion at the time that rulers were all-powerful (such
as a Roman emperor or an Egyptian pharaoh). The most substantial
occurrence was in 1215, when the nobles of England asserted their
rights against King John in the<i>Magna Carta</i>. In
addition, the notion of parliaments, as explained above, came into
existence, and the reciprocal nature of the feudal and manorial
contracts laid the most basic groundwork for the concept of the
social contract.</p>
<p>In addition, the formation of governmental bureaucracy began
during this time, as the royal councils of medieval kings evolved
into modern government departments.</p>
<p>Finally, the regulation of goods and services became
increasingly prominent during the Middle Ages, as guilds protected
the consumer from poor products.</p>
<p>Thinkers of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment tended to look
at the Middle Ages with scorn, but the Middle Ages were essential
in laying the groundwork for the times to come.</p>
<pagebreak />
<p>To buy more books like this, go to a book shop.</p>
</body></html>